AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.3

Urbanisation and urban change

Exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.3 Urbanisation and urban change in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

All questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Define the term urbanisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
The increase in the proportion of a country's population living in towns and cities (1); caused by rural-to-urban migration and natural increase within cities (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Explain why urbanisation is important in human affairs. [3 marks]
Answer:
More than half of the world's people now live in urban areas (1); cities generate most economic output, jobs and innovation (1); rapid urban growth creates pressure on housing, services and the environment (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Describe the global pattern of urbanisation since 1945. [4 marks]
Answer:
The world's urban population rose from about 750 million in 1950 to over 4 billion (1); urbanisation was largely complete in high-income countries such as the UK, where growth has slowed (1); the fastest growth has been in Asia and Africa, with Africa the least urbanised major region but growing quickly (1); Latin America is already over 80% urban (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
The world's urban population rose from 751 million in 1950 to 4.2 billion in 2018. Calculate the percentage increase to the nearest whole number. [2 marks]
Answer:
(4,200 − 751) ÷ 751 × 100 (1); 459% (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
A country has 120 million people, of whom 82 million live in urban areas. Calculate the level of urbanisation as a percentage to one decimal place. [2 marks]
Answer:
82 ÷ 120 × 100 (1); 68.3% (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Explain the push and pull factors that cause rural-to-urban migration. [4 marks]
Answer:
Push factors include lack of jobs, shortage of land and low farm incomes (1); poor rural services, drought and conflict also push people out (1); pull factors include job opportunities and higher wages in cities (1); better access to schools, healthcare and the attraction of city life also pull people in (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Explain why natural increase contributes to urban growth in developing countries. [3 marks]
Answer:
Many migrants are young adults of child-bearing age (1); improved healthcare in cities reduces death rates, particularly of infants (1); a youthful population means a high number of births, so cities keep growing after migration slows (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain the economic processes that lead to urban growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Industrialisation and the growth of services create jobs, which attracts workers (1); firms cluster together to benefit from shared labour, suppliers and customers, called agglomeration economies (1); the multiplier effect means new jobs create demand for more goods and services and so more jobs (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain the social processes associated with urbanisation. [3 marks]
Answer:
Cities offer better access to education and healthcare than most rural areas (1); family size falls as women gain education and employment and the cost of raising children rises (1); cities attract diverse groups, though inequality and informal settlements may grow (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain the technological processes associated with urban growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Railways, cars and public transport allow cities to spread and workers to commute (1); steel-framed buildings and lifts allow dense, high-rise development (1); improved water supply, sanitation and ICT make large populations easier to support and connect (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain how political decisions influence urban growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Governments create special economic zones, such as Shenzhen in 1980, which attract investment (1); planning rules, green belts and housing policy decide where growth can happen (1); relaxing controls on migration, such as China's hukou system, increases rural-to-urban movement (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain how demographic processes affect urban growth. [2 marks]
Answer:
The age structure of migrants affects birth rates and the age structure of the city (1); falling death rates and rising life expectancy increase the size of urban populations (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Describe the rapid growth of Shenzhen. [3 marks]
Answer:
It grew from a small fishing town in 1980 to a city of over 17 million people (1); it was made a special economic zone, with tax breaks and freedom to trade attracting foreign investment (1); migrants from across China came to work in electronics and technology firms (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain why rapid urban growth in developing countries can outpace the provision of infrastructure. [3 marks]
Answer:
Population grows faster than governments and cities can finance housing, water, sanitation and transport (1); migrants build informal settlements on unused land, which are not planned or connected to services (1); congestion, pollution and overcrowding result (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain what is meant by the urbanisation of poverty. [2 marks]
Answer:
Urban growth in some countries, such as in sub-Saharan Africa, has happened without matching economic growth (1); migrants end up in slums and the informal economy rather than in secure, well-paid jobs (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Explain the differences between urbanisation in high-income and low-income countries. [3 marks]
Answer:
Urbanisation in high-income countries took place over a long period, mostly during industrialisation (1); growth in low-income countries is much faster and mostly in the last 70 years (1); high-income countries now have counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation, while low-income countries still have large rural-to-urban flows (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Stages of urban change
Define suburbanisation and explain why it occurred. [3 marks]
Answer:
The outward growth of cities into surrounding areas as people move from the centre to the edge (1); rising car ownership, rail links and incomes made commuting possible (1); people sought bigger homes, gardens and cleaner air away from industrial areas (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Stages of urban change
Define counter-urbanisation and explain why it occurs. [3 marks]
Answer:
The movement of people from cities to smaller towns and rural areas (1); people seek a better quality of life, lower crime and cheaper housing (1); improved transport and the ability to work from home make it possible (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Stages of urban change
Define urban resurgence (re-urbanisation) and explain why it occurs. [3 marks]
Answer:
The return of people and investment to city centres and inner areas after decline (1); regeneration, new apartments and gentrification attract young professionals (1); cities offer jobs, culture and shorter commutes (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Stages of urban change
Describe how the character of Manchester's city centre has changed through re-urbanisation. [3 marks]
Answer:
From the 1990s the city centre was redeveloped, including rebuilding after the 1996 bomb (1); old mills and warehouses were converted into apartments, so the number of residents rose from very few to tens of thousands (1); bars, shops, universities and media employers, such as MediaCity, have brought young people into the area (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Stages of urban change
Explain how green belts affect urban growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
They restrict building on land around cities and so prevent sprawl and the merging of settlements (1); they protect countryside and give recreation space (1); they create pressure for housing on the land inside and leapfrog development beyond them (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Define the term megacity. [2 marks]
Answer:
A city with a population of more than 10 million (1); examples are Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, São Paulo and Lagos (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Describe the global distribution of megacities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Most megacities are in Asia, such as Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, Dhaka and Mumbai (1); there are others in Africa, such as Cairo, Lagos and Kinshasa, and in the Americas, such as Mexico City, São Paulo and New York (1); most are in low- and middle-income countries, and these are the fastest growing (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Define the term world city. [2 marks]
Answer:
A city that has major influence on the global economy, politics and culture (1); it contains the headquarters of TNCs, financial markets and global transport hubs, such as London, New York and Tokyo (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Distinguish between a megacity and a world city. [2 marks]
Answer:
A megacity is defined by its size, having over 10 million people (1); a world city is defined by its influence and connections in global networks, not its size (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Explain why London is considered a world city. [3 marks]
Answer:
It is a leading global financial centre, with the City and Canary Wharf, a stock exchange and many headquarters of banks and law firms (1); Heathrow is one of the world's busiest international airports and the city is well connected by rail, sea and internet links (1); its position in the time zone between Asia and the Americas, its universities and its culture make it attractive to talent and investment (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Explain the role of world cities in the global economy. [4 marks]
Answer:
They contain the headquarters of TNCs that control production around the world (1); they are centres for financial markets and producer services such as law, accountancy and advertising (1); they are nodes in transport and communications networks that link regions (1); they attract skilled migrants and investment, and drive innovation (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Explain the role of megacities in regional economies. [3 marks]
Answer:
Megacities such as Delhi, Shanghai and São Paulo are large markets and labour pools that attract manufacturing and services (1); they act as hubs for trade, finance and transport in their region (1); they also hold a large share of national GDP, though many of their people live in poor conditions (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Megacities and world cities
Explain what is meant by a primate city. [2 marks]
Answer:
A city that is much larger than the next largest city in the country and dominates its political and economic life (1); examples are Bangkok, Lima and Mexico City (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Explain the causes of deindustrialisation in British cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Competition from cheaper manufacturing in Asia and other newly industrialising countries (1); automation reduced the number of workers needed (1); TNCs moved production overseas to lower-cost locations (1); the decline of coal, steel and shipbuilding, and government decisions such as the closure of pits and privatisation (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Explain the impacts of deindustrialisation on inner-city areas. [4 marks]
Answer:
Factory closures led to unemployment and falling incomes (1); derelict land and buildings spoiled the environment (1); people and businesses left, causing population decline and falling house prices (1); a negative multiplier effect led to multiple deprivation (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Define decentralisation and give examples of it in British cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
The movement of people, shops and businesses from the city centre to the edge of the city (1); out-of-town shopping centres such as Meadowhall in Sheffield and the Trafford Centre in Manchester are examples (1); business parks and retail parks on the edge of cities are others (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Explain the causes of decentralisation. [3 marks]
Answer:
Increased car ownership and new roads, such as the M25, made out-of-town sites accessible (1); land in the centre is expensive and congested, whereas edge-of-town sites are cheaper with space for parking (1); planning permission was granted for retail and business parks, and people moved to the suburbs (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Explain the rise of the service economy in British cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Employment moved from manufacturing to services such as finance, retail, education and tourism, which now provide about 80% of jobs (1); developments in ICT and globalisation allowed businesses to locate in cities with skilled workers (1); regeneration created offices, leisure and cultural attractions (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Explain how online shopping has affected town centres. [3 marks]
Answer:
Fewer people visit shops, so chains such as BHS and Debenhams have closed (1); empty units reduce footfall and spending on the high street (1); town centres are changing to leisure, food, services and housing in response (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe the aims and methods of urban policy in Britain in the 1980s. [4 marks]
Answer:
Enterprise zones were created from 1981, with tax breaks and relaxed planning to attract business (1); Urban Development Corporations, such as the London Docklands and Merseyside, were given powers to buy and clear land (1); the aim was to attract private investment and use property-led regeneration (1); there was less emphasis on social issues, and benefits did not always reach local people (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe changes in urban policy in Britain in the 1990s and 2000s. [3 marks]
Answer:
City Challenge (1991) and the Single Regeneration Budget (1994) gave money for local partnerships, including local communities (1); the New Deal for Communities (1998) targeted the most deprived neighbourhoods (1); the Urban Task Force (1999) promoted high-density, mixed-use development on brownfield land (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe changes in urban policy in Britain since 2010. [3 marks]
Answer:
Cuts in local authority budgets (austerity) reduced regeneration spending (1); Local Enterprise Partnerships and City Deals gave more control to cities and businesses (1); the Levelling Up programme from 2021 aimed to reduce regional inequalities with funding for towns and cities (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Explain the difference between property-led and people-led regeneration. [2 marks]
Answer:
Property-led regeneration focuses on buildings and infrastructure and aims to attract private investment (1); people-led regeneration focuses on residents' jobs, skills, health and housing (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Explain how flagship projects are used in regeneration. [3 marks]
Answer:
High-profile developments, such as the Baltic and the Sage in Gateshead, change the image of an area (1); they attract visitors, investment and jobs (1); benefits may not reach local people, and the money may not support other areas (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe the work of the London Docklands Development Corporation. [4 marks]
Answer:
It was set up in 1981 to regenerate the former docks, which had closed in the 1960s and 1970s (1); it was given powers to buy land, make planning decisions and attract private investment (1); it developed Canary Wharf, the Docklands Light Railway and London City Airport (1); local residents criticised the loss of social housing and the lack of local jobs (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Evaluate the success of the London Docklands Development Corporation. [4 marks]
Answer:
It transformed derelict land into a successful financial and business district with thousands of jobs (1); transport links such as the DLR and the Jubilee line extension improved accessibility (1); however, many jobs were filled by commuters and not local residents (1); expensive housing and pressure on services increased inequality in the area (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe the regeneration of Liverpool's Albert Dock and waterfront. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Merseyside Development Corporation, set up in 1981, restored the derelict dock (1); it was redeveloped with museums, such as Tate Liverpool (1988), shops, apartments and restaurants (1); Liverpool One (2008) and its year as European Capital of Culture then boosted tourism and retail (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Describe how Manchester recovered after the 1996 IRA bombing. [3 marks]
Answer:
The bomb damaged the city centre retail core, and a masterplan was drawn up to rebuild it (1); public and private investment created Exchange Square, new shops and offices (1); the Commonwealth Games in 2002 and new housing and transport such as Metrolink supported further growth (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Explain the role of public-private partnerships in urban regeneration. [3 marks]
Answer:
Councils work with developers and businesses to share costs and skills (1); public money can reduce risk and provide land and infrastructure to encourage private investment (1); private companies may seek profit, so local needs may be overlooked unless the council sets conditions (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Evaluate the success of urban regeneration in Britain since 1979. [6 marks]
Answer:
Derelict land has been reclaimed and city centres such as Manchester, Liverpool and Gateshead have been transformed (1); new jobs in services, retail and leisure have been created (1); the image of former industrial cities has improved, attracting investment and visitors (1); however, benefits have often gone to newcomers and wealthier groups rather than local residents (1); some inner-city areas remain deprived, with inequality still high (1); the success of schemes varies by place and by what is measured, because the economic, social and environmental outcomes differ (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban policy
Assess the importance of different processes in the growth of cities in low-income and high-income countries. [6 marks]
Answer:
In low-income countries rural-to-urban migration is the main driver of growth (1); natural increase among young migrant populations adds to it (1); economic growth and government policy, such as special economic zones, attract migrants (1); in high-income countries urban growth is slower and linked to re-urbanisation and immigration (1); suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation spread cities outwards (1); the importance of each process depends on the stage of development, with economic opportunities and government policy influencing all of them (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Processes of urbanisation
Describe the growth of Lagos. [3 marks]
Answer:
Lagos grew from a few hundred thousand people in 1950 to well over 15 million (1); migrants from across Nigeria and West Africa come for jobs in trade, services and the port (1); informal settlements such as Makoko and severe traffic congestion show how infrastructure has not kept pace (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urban change
Describe how Sheffield changed after the decline of the steel industry. [3 marks]
Answer:
Steel employment fell sharply in the 1980s with the closure of many works (1); the Meadowhall shopping centre was built on the site of a former steelworks in 1990 (1); the city has since developed advanced manufacturing research, universities and services (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.3.1 · Urbanisation
Describe the level and pattern of urbanisation in the United Kingdom. [3 marks]
Answer:
The UK is over 80% urban, one of the highest levels in the world (1); there are large conurbations, such as Greater London, Greater Manchester and the West Midlands (1); growth is now concentrated in London and the south east and in some cities with strong economies, while some northern cities have declined or grown more slowly (1).

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