AQA A-level Geography · 3.1.4

Glacial systems and cold environments

50 exam-style questions with answers for 3.1.4 Glacial systems and cold environments in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

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Question 1 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Describe the inputs, stores, flows and outputs of a glacial system. [4 marks]
Answer:
Inputs: snowfall, avalanches and wind-blown snow (1); stores: snow, firn, glacier ice, meltwater and till (1); flows: movement of ice downslope and meltwater drainage (1); outputs: ablation by melting, sublimation and calving (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Name two sources of energy in a glacial system. [2 marks]
Answer:
Solar radiation, which causes melting and sublimation (1); gravity, which drives ice movement downslope (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Distinguish between a glacier, an ice sheet and an ice cap. [3 marks]
Answer:
A glacier is a mass of ice confined to a valley and flowing downhill (1); an ice cap is a dome-shaped mass of ice covering less than 50,000 km² (1); an ice sheet is a continental-scale mass of ice, as in Antarctica and Greenland (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Glacial budgets
Define a glacial budget. [2 marks]
Answer:
The balance between accumulation (gains of snow and ice) and ablation (losses) over a year (1); the budget determines whether the glacier advances, retreats or stays stable (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Glacial budgets
Distinguish between the zone of accumulation, the zone of ablation and the equilibrium line. [3 marks]
Answer:
The zone of accumulation is the upper part where snowfall exceeds melting (1); the zone of ablation is the lower part where melting exceeds snowfall (1); the equilibrium line is the boundary where gains equal losses (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Glacial budgets
Explain how a glacier responds to a positive and a negative budget. [3 marks]
Answer:
A positive budget means accumulation exceeds ablation (1); the glacier thickens and advances (1); a negative budget means ablation exceeds accumulation, so the glacier thins and retreats (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Glacial budgets
A glacier gains 1,200 mm of water equivalent from accumulation and loses 1,500 mm by ablation in one year. Calculate the net balance and state the likely response. [2 marks]
Answer:
1,200 − 1,500 = −300 mm (1); negative budget so the glacier is likely to retreat (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Explain how a glacier can be in dynamic equilibrium. [2 marks]
Answer:
Accumulation in the upper glacier balances ablation in the lower glacier over time (1); ice flows from the accumulation zone to the ablation zone, so the glacier keeps a steady size and shape (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Explain how positive feedback can occur as a glacier retreats. [3 marks]
Answer:
Melting exposes darker rock and water, which absorb more sunlight than snow and ice (1); this warms the surface and increases melting (1); the glacier retreats further, exposing more dark surfaces (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Explain how negative feedback can limit the advance of a glacier. [2 marks]
Answer:
As a glacier advances to lower, warmer altitudes, melting increases (1); this raises ablation until it matches accumulation, which slows the advance and restores equilibrium (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
Distinguish between polar, alpine, glacial and periglacial environments. [4 marks]
Answer:
Polar environments lie at high latitudes in the Arctic and Antarctic (1); alpine environments are high-altitude mountain areas (1); glacial environments are areas covered by glaciers and ice sheets (1); periglacial environments are cold areas near ice with frozen ground but no permanent ice cover (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
Describe the distribution of present-day cold environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
High-latitude polar regions, including the Arctic Ocean margins, Greenland and Antarctica (1); high mountain ranges such as the Alps, Andes, Rockies and Himalayas (1); periglacial areas with permafrost, especially across northern Canada, Alaska, Siberia and Scandinavia (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
What proportion of the world's ice is held in Antarctica? [1 mark]
Answer:
About 90%.
Question 14 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
Describe the global distribution of areas affected by the Pleistocene glaciations. [3 marks]
Answer:
At the maximum, about 30% of the Earth's land was ice covered (1); large ice sheets covered North America, northern Europe and northern Asia, reaching about 40° north (1); ice also covered mountain ranges at lower latitudes and the southern tips of South America and New Zealand (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
Describe the extent of ice in the UK during the last glaciation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Ice covered most of Scotland, Wales, northern England and Ireland (1); an earlier, more extensive glaciation reached as far south as north London (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Cold environments
Explain the main cause of cycles of glacial and interglacial periods. [3 marks]
Answer:
Regular changes in the Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) alter the amount of solar energy reaching high latitudes (1); the changes include orbital shape, axial tilt and precession (1); feedbacks such as albedo and carbon dioxide levels amplify the effect (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Describe the climate of polar environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
Very low temperatures, with average temperatures below 0 °C for most of the year (1); low precipitation, mainly as snow, so they are classed as polar deserts in places (1); strong winds, long dark winters and very short summers (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Describe the climate of alpine environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
Temperature falls with altitude, by about 6.5 °C for every 1,000 m (1); high precipitation, much of it snow, especially on windward slopes (1); strong winds, intense ultraviolet radiation and big differences between sunny and shaded slopes (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Explain why polar regions are cold. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Sun is low in the sky, so insolation is spread over a large area and passes through more atmosphere (1); snow and ice have high albedo and reflect most solar radiation (1); there are months of darkness in winter (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Explain why precipitation is low in polar regions. [2 marks]
Answer:
Cold air holds very little water vapour (1); high pressure dominates, with sinking air and limited cloud formation (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Describe the characteristics of soils in cold environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
Thin and poorly developed, with little organic matter because decomposition is slow (1); often waterlogged in summer because permafrost prevents drainage (1); frozen for much of the year, and acid and low in nutrients (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Describe the characteristics of vegetation in cold environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
Low-growing plants such as lichens, mosses, sedges, dwarf shrubs and grasses (1); few species and low biodiversity (1); a short growing season and no trees on tundra because roots cannot penetrate frozen ground (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Describe three adaptations of tundra plants to the cold. [3 marks]
Answer:
Small, ground-hugging shapes shelter plants from wind and keep them in warmer air near the ground (1); shallow roots, because permafrost prevents deep rooting (1); dark, hairy or waxy leaves that absorb heat and reduce water loss, and quick flowering in the short summer (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Characteristics
Explain the interactions between climate, soil and vegetation in cold environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
The cold climate keeps ground frozen and limits plant growth (1); little organic matter and slow decomposition produce thin, infertile soils (1); poor soils and shallow rooting allow only low plants, which give little protection to the soil (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Periglacial
What is permafrost? [2 marks]
Answer:
Ground that remains frozen for at least two years (1); it can be continuous, discontinuous or sporadic depending on temperature (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Periglacial
What is the active layer? [2 marks]
Answer:
The upper layer of ground above the permafrost that thaws in summer (1); it becomes waterlogged because meltwater cannot drain through the frozen ground below (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Historical patterns
Describe historical patterns of ice advance and retreat since the last glacial maximum. [3 marks]
Answer:
Ice sheets were at their maximum about 20,000 years ago and then retreated as the climate warmed (1); there was a brief readvance in the Younger Dryas around 12,000 years ago (1); small glaciers expanded during the Little Ice Age (about 1300 to 1850) and most have retreated since (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Warm and cold-based glaciers
Describe the characteristics of warm-based glaciers. [3 marks]
Answer:
Temperatures at the base are at the pressure melting point, so there is meltwater at the bed (1); the meltwater lubricates basal sliding, so movement is relatively fast (1); they are highly erosive and are typical of temperate mountain areas such as the Alps and Norway (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Warm and cold-based glaciers
Describe the characteristics of cold-based glaciers. [3 marks]
Answer:
The ice is below freezing and is frozen to the bed (1); movement is slow, mainly by internal deformation (1); erosion is limited and they are found in polar areas such as Antarctica (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Warm and cold-based glaciers
Explain why warm-based glaciers are more erosive than cold-based glaciers. [2 marks]
Answer:
Meltwater at the bed allows faster basal sliding (1); moving ice carries rock debris that causes abrasion, and meltwater refreezing helps plucking (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain how frost action weathers rock in glaciated areas. [3 marks]
Answer:
Water enters cracks in the rock (1); when it freezes it expands by about 9% and exerts pressure (1); repeated freezing and thawing widens the cracks until fragments break off (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain how nivation operates. [3 marks]
Answer:
Snow collects in a hollow and freeze-thaw weathers the rock at its edges (1); meltwater and mass movement remove the debris (1); the hollow enlarges, and may develop into a corrie (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain internal deformation as a method of ice movement. [2 marks]
Answer:
Ice crystals within the glacier slide past each other under the force of gravity (1); this creep happens in both warm and cold glaciers, and is the main movement in cold-based glaciers (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain how basal sliding occurs. [3 marks]
Answer:
Pressure melting or geothermal heat produces meltwater at the base (1); meltwater lubricates the contact between ice and bedrock (1); the glacier slides over the bed, which is common in warm-based glaciers (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Distinguish between rotational, compressional and extensional flow. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rotational flow is the circular movement of ice in a hollow such as a corrie (1); compressional flow occurs where the glacier slows and thickens, as the gradient decreases (1); extensional flow occurs where the glacier speeds up and thins, as the gradient steepens (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain the process of plucking. [3 marks]
Answer:
Meltwater at the base of the glacier freezes onto bedrock (1); when the glacier moves, it pulls out pieces of rock (1); plucking is most effective on well-jointed rock and leaves jagged, rough surfaces (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain the process of abrasion. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rock debris frozen into the base and sides of the glacier acts like sandpaper (1); as the ice moves it scratches and polishes the bedrock (1); it produces striations and rock flour (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Describe how glaciers transport material. [3 marks]
Answer:
Supraglacially, on the glacier surface (1); englacially, within the ice (1); subglacially, at the base (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Processes
Explain how glacial deposition occurs. [3 marks]
Answer:
Ice melts as temperatures rise or the glacier reaches lower altitudes (1); the glacier loses energy and can no longer carry its load (1); it deposits unsorted, angular material called till, as lodgement till or ablation till (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Fluvioglacial processes
Explain the role of meltwater in fluvioglacial processes. [3 marks]
Answer:
Meltwater flows on, in and beneath the glacier and erodes channels (1); it can transport large amounts of sediment, especially when under pressure (1); it deposits sorted and rounded material when its velocity falls (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Periglacial processes
Explain frost heave in periglacial areas. [2 marks]
Answer:
Water in the ground freezes and expands, forming ice lenses (1); the ground surface is pushed upwards, moving stones to the surface (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Periglacial processes
Explain how solifluction operates. [3 marks]
Answer:
In summer the active layer thaws and becomes saturated (1); water cannot drain through the frozen ground beneath (1); saturated soil flows slowly downslope, even on gentle gradients, forming lobes and terraces (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Quantitative skills
A glacier snout retreated by 450 m over 30 years. Calculate the mean annual rate of retreat. [2 marks]
Answer:
450 ÷ 30 (1); = 15 m per year (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Quantitative skills
A glacier moves at 0.5 m per day. Calculate how far it moves in one year. [1 mark]
Answer:
0.5 × 365 = 182.5 m.
Question 45 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Field data
Describe how the speed of glacier movement could be measured. [3 marks]
Answer:
Place marker stakes in a line across the glacier surface (1); survey their positions repeatedly using GPS or a theodolite (1); calculate the distance moved over time, and compare the centre with the edges (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Field data
Describe how till could be analysed to find its source. [3 marks]
Answer:
Collect a random sample of at least 50 stones from a till exposure (1); measure the angularity of clasts and their long-axis orientation (1); identify the rock types to show where the ice carried the material from (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Explain how snow is converted into glacier ice. [3 marks]
Answer:
Fresh snow is compressed by the weight of later snowfall (1); air is squeezed out and partial melting and refreezing form granular firn (1); further compaction over many years produces dense glacier ice (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.1.4.1 · Glacial systems
Explain how aspect affects where glaciers form in the northern hemisphere. [2 marks]
Answer:
North-facing slopes receive less direct sunlight, so snow melts more slowly (1); snow survives from year to year and accumulates, so glaciers are more likely to form there (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.1.4.3 · Warm and cold-based glaciers
Explain the term pressure melting point. [2 marks]
Answer:
The temperature at which ice melts under pressure (1); at the base of a thick glacier the weight of ice lowers the melting point below 0 °C, so meltwater can form (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.1.4.2 · Periglacial
Distinguish between continuous, discontinuous and sporadic permafrost. [3 marks]
Answer:
Continuous permafrost is an unbroken frozen layer found in the coldest areas (1); discontinuous permafrost has patches of unfrozen ground where temperatures are slightly warmer (1); sporadic permafrost occurs in isolated patches at the margins of the permafrost zone (1).

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