AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.5

Mineral security and resource futures

Exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.5 Mineral security and resource futures in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

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Question 1 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Describe how banded iron formations, the main source of iron ore, were formed. [3 marks]
Answer:
About 2.5 to 1.8 billion years ago, cyanobacteria released oxygen into the oceans by photosynthesis (1); the oxygen reacted with dissolved iron to form iron oxides, which settled on the seabed in layers with silica-rich chert (1); the rocks were later buried, folded and uplifted, and weathering enriched the ore to form high grade deposits, as in the Pilbara (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Describe the main types of iron ore and their iron content. [3 marks]
Answer:
Hematite is the most important ore, with an iron content of up to about 70% (1); magnetite contains up to about 72% iron and is mined in Sweden, Chile and Australia, but needs processing (1); lower grade ores, such as goethite and taconite, have 25-60% iron, and Chinese domestic ores average about 20-30%, so are of lower quality than those of Australia and Brazil (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Describe the distribution of iron ore reserves. [3 marks]
Answer:
Australia has the largest reserves of iron ore, about a quarter of the world's total, followed by Brazil, Russia and China (1); other reserves are in India, Ukraine, Canada, Sweden and the USA (1); the best quality ore is in Australia's Pilbara region and Brazil's Carajas, and many of the reserves in China are low grade (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Describe the pattern of production of iron ore. [3 marks]
Answer:
World production is about 2.5 billion tonnes a year (1); Australia is the largest producer, followed by Brazil, China and India (1); Australia and Brazil produce most of the ore that is traded internationally, while China and India use much of their own output (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Explain why Australia and Brazil dominate exports of iron ore. [3 marks]
Answer:
Both have huge deposits of high grade ore in ancient geological formations that are close to the surface and can be mined cheaply in open pits (1); heavy haul railways and deepwater ports, such as Port Hedland and Ponta da Madeira, allow ore to be moved cheaply to ships (1); investment by large mining companies, and large bulk carriers, make it cost effective to supply Asian markets (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Explain why China imports most of the world's traded iron ore. [3 marks]
Answer:
China produces over half of the world's steel, so it has a very large demand for iron ore (1); its own ore is low grade and costly to process, so imports of high grade ore are cheaper per tonne of iron (1); it has invested in mines and ports in Australia, Brazil and Africa to secure supplies, and buys over two thirds of seaborne iron ore (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Describe the end uses of iron ore. [3 marks]
Answer:
Over 98% of iron ore is used to make steel (1); steel is used in construction, infrastructure, vehicles, ships, machinery and appliances (1); smaller amounts are used in powders, pigments and chemicals (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Iron ore sources
Outline how iron ore is turned into steel. [4 marks]
Answer:
Ore is crushed and often made into pellets or sinter (1); in a blast furnace it is heated with coke, a form of coal, and limestone, which removes impurities as slag, producing molten pig iron (1); the iron is turned into steel in a basic oxygen furnace, where oxygen is blown through to remove carbon (1); steel can also be made from scrap in an electric arc furnace, which uses much less ore (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Explain the components of demand for iron ore. [4 marks]
Answer:
Construction and infrastructure, such as buildings, bridges and railways, account for around half of steel use (1); manufacturing of vehicles, ships, machinery and appliances adds demand (1); demand is driven by urbanisation and industrial growth in China, India and South East Asia (1); the use of scrap steel and recycling reduces the demand for new ore (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Describe the role of iron ore in global commerce and industry. [4 marks]
Answer:
Iron ore is one of the most valuable commodities traded by sea, second only to oil by some measures (1); it is the basis of the steel industry, which supplies all of the major industrial sectors (1); a few countries supply most of the exports, and a few companies control most of the supply (1); the price of iron ore is a key indicator of the global economy and of the strength of China's construction industry (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Explain why the price of iron ore fluctuates. [3 marks]
Answer:
Demand changes with the strength of the Chinese construction and manufacturing sectors, and the price rose above $200 a tonne in 2021, then fell when China's property market weakened (1); supply is slow to react as mines take years to develop, and disruptions such as cyclones and dam failures can cut output (1); speculation, exchange rates and shipping costs also influence the price (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Describe the role of transnational corporations in the iron ore industry. [3 marks]
Answer:
Four companies, Vale, Rio Tinto, BHP and Fortescue, supply around two thirds of seaborne iron ore (1); they own mines, railways, ports and shipping, and control the supply chain (1); they have the finance for huge projects and also take part in conflicts with indigenous communities and governments over the benefits and the impacts (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Explain how technology has changed the working of iron ore in the Pilbara. [3 marks]
Answer:
Autonomous trucks and drills are operated remotely from a control centre in Perth, reducing labour costs (1); Rio Tinto's AutoHaul network, completed in 2018, was the first fully driverless long-distance heavy haul railway in the world (1); automation makes mining cheaper and safer, but reduces the number of jobs for local people (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Explain why new sources of iron ore, such as Simandou in Guinea, are being developed. [3 marks]
Answer:
Simandou has some of the largest untapped reserves of high grade ore in the world (1); China wants a source other than Australia and Brazil, and Chinese companies are partners in the project, which was due to start shipping in 2025 (1); developing it needs a 600 km railway and a port, in a poor country with weak infrastructure, so the project is risky and costly (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Physical geography
Explain the geological conditions associated with iron ore in the Pilbara. [4 marks]
Answer:
The ore comes from banded iron formations of the Hamersley Basin, laid down about 2.5 billion years ago, and part of the ancient Pilbara craton (1); the rocks are tilted and folded, and the Hamersley Range exposes thick ore bodies at the surface (1); weathering and groundwater enriched the iron content in the rocks to 60% or more (1); stable, ancient rocks are free from recent tectonic activity, so the ore is close to the surface and easy to mine (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Physical geography
Explain how the location of the Pilbara affects the working and cost of iron ore. [4 marks]
Answer:
It is in the north-west of Australia, a remote semi-desert, so mines, railways, power and towns had to be built, and many workers fly in and out (1); the dry climate and flat or gently rolling land make open-pit mining easy, and railways to the coast are simple to build (1); the coast has deep natural harbours, such as Port Hedland, which handles over 500 million tonnes a year (1); extreme heat, cyclones and a shortage of water raise costs, and the long shipping distance to China is offset by the scale of the operation (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Physical geography
Compare the physical geography of Carajas in Brazil with that of the Pilbara. [4 marks]
Answer:
Carajas is in the Amazon rainforest in Para state, whereas the Pilbara is in a semi-desert (1); both have ancient banded iron formations, and Carajas ore is very high grade at 65% iron or more (1); Carajas needs a railway of about 900 km to the port of Sao Luis, while Pilbara railways are shorter (1); in Carajas, heavy rain, dense forest and high humidity make land clearance and operations more difficult, but the area is a protected national forest around the mine (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Physical geography
Explain how climate affects the working of iron ore deposits. [3 marks]
Answer:
In the Pilbara high temperatures, cyclones and flooding stop work, and water is scarce for processing and dust control (1); in the Amazon heavy rainfall causes erosion of spoil and makes roads and railways harder to maintain (1); in the Arctic, as at Kiruna, cold and snow limit working and increase costs (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Physical geography
Explain how geology and relief influence whether ore is mined by open pit or underground methods. [3 marks]
Answer:
Ore close to the surface, such as the Pilbara and Carajas, is mined in open pits, which are cheaper and safer (1); deep or steeply dipping ore, as at Kiruna in Sweden, needs underground mining, which costs more (1); the strength of the rock and the thickness of the overburden affect the depth and slope of the pit (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the environmental impacts of large-scale open-pit iron ore mining in the Pilbara. [4 marks]
Answer:
Vast pits and spoil heaps remove vegetation and change the landscape, with loss of habitat for animals such as the northern quoll (1); blasting, crushing and trains produce dust and noise that affect air quality and nearby communities (1); mines use large amounts of water from aquifers and dewatering can affect springs and wetlands (1); the land needs rehabilitation after mining, and the pits may be left as permanent voids (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Describe the destruction of the Juukan Gorge rock shelters in 2020. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rio Tinto blasted two ancient rock shelters in the Pilbara to expand an iron ore mine, in May 2020 (1); the shelters had evidence of human occupation for about 46,000 years and were sacred to the Puutu Kunti Kurrama and Pinikura peoples (1); the loss caused public outrage, an inquiry by the Australian Parliament and the resignation of the company's chief executive (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the environmental impacts of the distribution networks for iron ore. [3 marks]
Answer:
Railways of over 1,000 km cut through desert and forest, and break up habitats (1); ports such as Port Hedland produce dust and noise, and dredging harms marine life (1); bulk carriers burn heavy fuel oil, release greenhouse gases and may spread invasive species in ballast water (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the environmental and social impacts of iron ore mining at Carajas in Brazil. [4 marks]
Answer:
Forest has been cleared for mines, the railway and settlements, and the Greater Carajas Programme brought migration and further deforestation (1); pig iron smelters in the region used charcoal made from native forest (1); the railway and mines affected indigenous groups, such as the Xikrin, and caused conflict over land and pollution of rivers (1); the project provides jobs and exports for Brazil, and a protected national forest surrounds the mine (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Describe the Mariana and Brumadinho tailings dam failures in Brazil. [4 marks]
Answer:
In 2015 the Fundao dam at Mariana, owned by Samarco, which is a joint venture between Vale and BHP, collapsed and killed 19 people (1); mining waste polluted the Rio Doce for hundreds of kilometres to the Atlantic (1); in January 2019 the Vale dam at Brumadinho failed and killed about 270 people (1); both led to legal action and huge compensation claims, and tighter rules for dams (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the problem of tailings from iron ore mining. [3 marks]
Answer:
Processing creates large volumes of waste rock and slurry, called tailings, which are stored behind dams (1); dams can fail because of poor design, heavy rain or earthquakes, with deadly effect for communities downstream (1); tailings can pollute soil and water, and need monitoring for many decades, so some companies are changing to dry stacking (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the social impacts of iron ore mining on local communities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Mines provide well paid jobs, training and royalties, and have led to the growth of towns such as Newman and Karratha (1); many workers fly in and out, which reduces the benefits to local places and affects family life (1); indigenous communities may lose land and cultural sites, and conflict over compensation and rights has arisen (1); boom and bust cycles lead to job losses when prices fall (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Impacts
Explain the economic importance of iron ore to Western Australia. [3 marks]
Answer:
Iron ore is Australia's largest export by value, and most of it comes from Western Australia (1); royalties paid to the state government fund health, education and infrastructure, and the mines support thousands of jobs (1); the state's economy is dependent on China's demand, so it is vulnerable to price changes (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Sustainability
Explain the sustainability issues associated with iron ore extraction, trade and processing. [3 marks]
Answer:
Ore is a finite resource, and high grade deposits are being depleted, so lower grades need more energy and create more waste (1); mining causes habitat loss, water use and pollution, and has social costs for indigenous peoples (1); shipping and steelmaking release greenhouse gases, and dependence on a few exporters and one big buyer makes trade vulnerable (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Sustainability
Explain why steelmaking contributes to climate change and how this might be reduced. [4 marks]
Answer:
Blast furnaces use coke, so the industry releases about 1.9 tonnes of carbon dioxide for every tonne of steel and about 7-9% of global emissions (1); using more scrap steel in electric arc furnaces cuts emissions (1); hydrogen can replace coke in making iron, as in the HYBRIT project in Sweden which produced the first fossil-free steel in 2021 (1); these methods need cheap renewable electricity and hydrogen, which is costly, so change is slow (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Sustainability
Explain the role of recycling in the sustainable use of iron and steel. [3 marks]
Answer:
Steel is the most recycled material in the world, and about 30% of steel is made from scrap (1); recycling saves ore, energy and carbon emissions and reduces waste going to landfill (1); steel can be recycled many times without losing quality, but quantities of scrap are limited by the long life of buildings and bridges (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Sustainability
Describe ways in which mining companies reduce the environmental impact of mining. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rehabilitating mined land by replacing soil and replanting native species (1); recycling and treating water, and using dust suppression and covers (1); consulting local communities, using renewable energy at mines, and monitoring tailings dams (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Copper
Describe the distribution, uses and demand for copper. [3 marks]
Answer:
Chile is the largest producer, followed by Peru and the DR Congo (1); copper is used in electrical wiring, motors, electronics, plumbing and renewable energy systems, because it conducts electricity well (1); demand is rising with electrification, electric vehicles and wind and solar power, while new discoveries of high grade ores are becoming rarer (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Copper
Explain how physical geography influences the occurrence and working of copper in Chile's Atacama Desert. [4 marks]
Answer:
Porphyry copper deposits formed above the subduction zone where the Nazca plate descends beneath South America, when magma and hot fluids deposited metals in the rock (1); the arid climate means little vegetation, so open-pit mines such as Escondida, the largest copper mine in the world, are easy to work (1); water is scarce, so mines use desalinated seawater pumped uphill, which costs a lot (1); the mines are high in the Andes, so ore is moved by pipeline, truck and rail to ports on the coast (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Describe alternative energy futures that may change energy supply. [4 marks]
Answer:
Green hydrogen made by electrolysis using renewable electricity could fuel industry, shipping and steelmaking (1); small modular reactors could provide nuclear power at lower cost and shorter build times (1); nuclear fusion has shown a net energy gain in experiments, but is not likely to supply electricity for many decades (1); better batteries and grids, and smart systems, could allow a higher share of wind and solar power (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Explain how political and economic developments will influence energy futures. [3 marks]
Answer:
Carbon taxes, subsidies and bans on petrol and diesel cars change the cost of different fuels (1); international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement and the COP28 call to move away from fossil fuels, set the direction, although progress depends on national policies (1); the IEA projects that demand for oil, gas and coal will each peak before 2030 under current policies, but prices, wars and energy security concerns can slow or speed change (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Describe technological developments that may change water supply in the future. [4 marks]
Answer:
Desalination using renewable energy and improved membranes may reduce the cost and carbon emissions (1); recycling waste water to drinking standards, as in Singapore, is expanding (1); smart meters, sensors and satellite data can detect leaks and help farmers to irrigate efficiently (1); drought-resistant crops and rainwater harvesting reduce demand, but the cost may limit use in poorer countries (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Explain how demand for minerals may change with the growth of low-carbon technologies. [3 marks]
Answer:
Electric vehicles, batteries, wind turbines and solar panels need large amounts of lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper and rare earths (1); the IEA estimates that demand for minerals for clean energy could quadruple by 2040, and that for lithium could be up to 40 times that of 2020 (1); supply may not keep pace, and rising prices and shortages could slow the energy transition (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Explain how urban mining and the circular economy may change mineral supply. [3 marks]
Answer:
Urban mining recovers metals from electronic waste, vehicles and old buildings, which can have higher metal content than ore (1); a circular economy designs products for repair, reuse and recycling, so fewer new minerals are needed (1); recycling rates are low for many metals, such as lithium, and collecting and separating items is difficult (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Evaluate deep-sea mining as a future source of minerals. [4 marks]
Answer:
Polymetallic nodules on the seabed of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone contain manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper, and could supply metals for batteries (1); mining at sea avoids the social problems of land mines and may be cheaper than some land sources (1); it would destroy seabed habitats, create sediment plumes and affect ecosystems that are poorly known and recover very slowly (1); rules from the International Seabed Authority for commercial mining are still being agreed, and many countries and companies want a pause (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Explain how substitution and technological change may reduce demand for scarce minerals. [3 marks]
Answer:
Lithium iron phosphate batteries do not need cobalt or nickel, and sodium-ion batteries may reduce the need for lithium (1); more efficient designs use smaller quantities of rare earths in motors and turbines (1); this depends on price, performance and the research needed, and new technologies may use other scarce materials (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Resource futures
Explain how different scenarios for the future of energy may develop. [3 marks]
Answer:
In a business as usual scenario, fossil fuels remain dominant and carbon emissions keep rising (1); in a net zero scenario, as in the IEA's route to 2050, renewables, nuclear, efficiency and electrification replace most fossil fuel use (1); the outcome depends on technology, cost, policy and public acceptance, and different regions are likely to follow different paths (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.5.6 · Evaluation
Assess the extent to which technology can solve future resource shortages. [6 marks]
Answer:
Technology has raised supply in the past, for example fracking, deepwater drilling and desalination (1); efficiency, recycling and substitution reduce demand for scarce resources (1); renewable energy, batteries and hydrogen may replace fossil fuels (1); however, new technologies need minerals and energy, cost a lot to develop and may not reach poor countries quickly (1); politics, conflict and unequal access can cause shortages even when the resource exists (1); technology is a key part of the solution, but changes in consumption, policy and cooperation are also needed (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Case studies
Explain how the physical environment affects the availability and cost of energy in Iceland. [4 marks]
Answer:
Iceland lies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and a hotspot, so there is a high heat flow, with many geothermal fields such as Hellisheidi (1); heavy rainfall, glaciers and steep rivers provide hydropower, and nearly all its electricity is from hydro and geothermal sources (1); geothermal water heats about 90% of homes, so heating is cheap, and electricity is among the cheapest in Europe (1); the small population and cold, remote location mean that there is no fossil fuel, so oil is imported for transport and fishing (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Case studies
Describe how Iceland uses its cheap renewable energy. [3 marks]
Answer:
Aluminium smelting uses most of the electricity, such as the Alcoa plant at Reydarfjordur, which is powered by the Karahnjukar hydro scheme (1); geothermal heat supports district heating, greenhouses, fish farming and tourism, such as the Blue Lagoon (1); data centres are attracted by cool air and green power, but dams and power stations affect the landscape, and some projects have been controversial (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Case studies
Explain the issues of lithium extraction in the Atacama salt flats in Chile. [4 marks]
Answer:
Lithium-rich brine is pumped from under the salt flat into evaporation ponds, where the sun and wind evaporate the water over many months (1); the dry, sunny climate makes the process cheap, so Chile is one of the top producers (1); large amounts of water are used in a place where water is scarce, which threatens wetlands, flamingos and the water of local Indigenous communities (1); the demand for electric vehicle batteries is increasing the pressure to expand production (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Case studies
Explain the relationship between resource security and human welfare. [4 marks]
Answer:
Access to clean water prevents disease, and about two billion people still lack safely managed drinking water (1); reliable energy powers hospitals, schools, industry and refrigeration, and about 700 million people have no electricity (1); mineral exports can fund development, but may lead to the resource curse and conflict where governance is weak (1); insecurity of food, water or energy can cause price rises, hunger and migration (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Case studies
Describe how Botswana has managed its diamond wealth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Debswana is a joint venture, owned equally by the government and De Beers, giving the state a large share of the revenue (1); money was invested in schools, health care and roads, and Botswana's income per person rose from among the lowest in the world in the 1960s to upper middle income (1); its Pula Fund saves part of the revenue, but the economy still depends on diamonds, which are most of its exports, and was hit by falling prices and lab-grown diamonds (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Evaluation
Assess the extent to which iron ore extraction can be considered sustainable. [6 marks]
Answer:
Iron is abundant and steel can be recycled many times, so supply is not about to run out (1); mining provides jobs, taxes and the materials for infrastructure and development (1); however, open-pit mines destroy habitats, use water and create tailings, with disasters at Mariana and Brumadinho (1); social impacts on indigenous people, as at Juukan Gorge, show weak protection (1); steelmaking is a major source of carbon emissions, and green steel is not yet widespread (1); extraction could be made more sustainable with recycling, rehabilitation, new technology and better regulation, but the current scale makes full sustainability unlikely (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.5.7 · Evaluation
Assess the extent to which resource security improves human welfare. [6 marks]
Answer:
Secure water, energy and minerals support health, food production, industry and jobs (1); countries with secure supplies, such as Norway, have high incomes and strong welfare (1); however, resource wealth can lead to the resource curse, inequality and conflict, as in the Niger Delta and the DR Congo (1); resource extraction can damage the environment and harm the health and livelihoods of local people (1); resource-poor countries, such as Japan and Singapore, have achieved high welfare by trade, efficiency and technology (1); security alone does not guarantee welfare, as governance, how wealth is shared, and the sustainability of use are the deciding factors (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.5.5 · Demand and commerce
Explain why iron ore is called a bulk commodity and how this affects its trade. [3 marks]
Answer:
Iron ore is traded in very large quantities at a low value per tonne, so transport costs are a high share of the price (1); trade depends on large bulk carriers, such as Capesize ships, and efficient railways and deep ports (1); the cost of shipping from Brazil to China is higher than from Australia, so Brazilian ore must be of high grade to compete (1).

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