AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.3

Urban climate

50 exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.3 Urban climate in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Define the term urban heat island. [2 marks]
Answer:
An urban area that is warmer than the surrounding rural area (1); the difference is greatest at night, under calm, clear skies, and can reach several degrees Celsius (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain the causes of the urban heat island effect. [5 marks]
Answer:
Dark surfaces such as tarmac and roofs have a low albedo and absorb more solar radiation (1); concrete, brick and tarmac store heat by day and release it slowly at night (1); heat is released from vehicles, heating, air conditioning and industry (1); there is less vegetation and open water, so less evaporation and cooling (1); tall buildings trap radiation in urban canyons, and a layer of pollution in the air holds in outgoing radiation (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain why the urban heat island is greatest at night. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rural surfaces lose heat quickly after sunset, especially under clear skies (1); urban materials release their stored heat slowly through the night (1); calm conditions prevent winds from mixing the air, so the temperature difference persists (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Describe the typical pattern of temperature across a city on a calm, clear night. [3 marks]
Answer:
Temperatures are highest in the central business district, where buildings are densest (1); they fall gradually through the suburbs, with a steep drop (cliff) at the edge of the built-up area (1); parks and open spaces show lower temperatures, as cooler islands within the city (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
The temperature in the city centre is 17.5°C and in the surrounding countryside is 12.0°C. Calculate the urban heat island intensity. [2 marks]
Answer:
Urban temperature minus rural temperature (1); 5.5°C (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Describe how data could be collected to investigate the urban heat island in a city. [3 marks]
Answer:
Take temperature readings along a transect from the city centre to the countryside, at the same time of day (1); use thermometers or data loggers at fixed sites in different land uses (1); present results as a graph or isotherm map to show the pattern, and repeat in different weather conditions (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain the effects of the urban heat island. [4 marks]
Answer:
Any four from: heat stress, especially for older people and children, increases illness and deaths in heatwaves (1); demand for air conditioning and electricity rises (1); air pollution, particularly ozone, increases at higher temperatures (1); frost and snow occur less often, so there is less disruption in winter (1); the growing season is longer for plants in the city (1); sleep and wellbeing are affected by warm nights (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain how the urban heat island can be reduced. [4 marks]
Answer:
Green roofs and walls and urban trees give shade and cool through evaporation (1); light-coloured or reflective roofs and road surfaces reflect more radiation (1); parks, ponds and fountains cool the air (1); design that allows air to flow through the city, and reduces waste heat from vehicles and buildings (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Describe how Stuttgart manages its urban climate. [3 marks]
Answer:
Stuttgart sits in a basin and suffers from poor ventilation and air pollution (1); planners have created ventilation corridors, protecting open land and restricting building on slopes (1); the city also requires green roofs on many new buildings (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Describe the use of green roofs in a city such as Chicago. [3 marks]
Answer:
Chicago City Hall has had a planted roof since 2001, with thousands of plants (1); green roofs reduce temperatures on the roof and the energy needed to cool the building (1); they also absorb rainwater and reduce flooding, and provide habitat (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain the impact of the heatwaves of 2003 and 2022 on cities in Europe. [3 marks]
Answer:
Temperatures reached record levels, and in cities the urban heat island made nights extremely hot (1); the 2003 heatwave caused tens of thousands of extra deaths across Europe, especially among older people (1); London recorded over 40°C for the first time in July 2022, with disruption to transport and fires (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Precipitation
Explain why precipitation in and downwind of cities is often greater. [4 marks]
Answer:
The heat island causes air to rise by convection, which can lead to cloud and showers (1); tall buildings force air upwards and create turbulence (1); pollution particles act as condensation nuclei for water droplets (1); moisture from industry, power stations and vehicles adds to the water vapour (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Precipitation
Explain why thunderstorms may be more frequent over and downwind of cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Strong heating of the urban surface causes intense convection and unstable air (1); in summer the heat island adds to this, producing towering cumulonimbus clouds (1); the effect is greater downwind, as storms are carried by the prevailing wind (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Precipitation
Explain how urban surfaces affect the intensity of rainfall impacts. [3 marks]
Answer:
Impermeable surfaces such as concrete and tarmac prevent infiltration (1); drains carry water quickly to rivers, giving a shorter lag time and a higher peak (1); this increases the risk of flash flooding after intense storms (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Precipitation
Explain why snow is less common in urban areas than in the surrounding countryside. [2 marks]
Answer:
The urban heat island keeps air temperatures higher (1); snow that does fall melts quickly on warm surfaces, and is also removed by road treatment and traffic (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Fog
Explain how cities affect the formation of fog. [4 marks]
Answer:
Pollution particles provide condensation nuclei so fog can form easily in cold weather (1); in the past burning of coal produced smog that persisted for days (1); the urban heat island and drier urban air mean that radiation fog forms less often in modern cities (1); clean air laws have reduced smog, so fogs are now less dense and frequent (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Fog
Describe the Great Smog of London in 1952. [3 marks]
Answer:
A temperature inversion trapped smoke and sulphur dioxide from coal fires under a layer of cold air for several days in December (1); visibility was reduced to a few metres and transport stopped (1); thousands of deaths were caused by respiratory problems, which led to the Clean Air Act of 1956 (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Explain how urban structures affect average wind speed. [3 marks]
Answer:
Buildings create friction, so average wind speeds are lower than in open country by up to a quarter (1); wind direction is changed by buildings and streets (1); there are more calm conditions, which reduces ventilation and allows pollution to build up (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Explain how urban layout can increase wind speed locally. [3 marks]
Answer:
Wind is funnelled along narrow streets or between tall buildings, called the canyon or Venturi effect (1); tall buildings deflect fast winds from higher up down to street level, creating gusts (1); open squares and the gaps between towers can have strong, turbulent winds (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Describe the effects of the Walkie-Talkie building in London on local conditions. [2 marks]
Answer:
The curved glass of 20 Fenchurch Street concentrated sunlight in 2013, melting parts of a car parked below (1); the tower also created strong downdraughts and gusts at street level near the base (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Explain what is meant by a country breeze. [2 marks]
Answer:
Cooler air from the surrounding countryside flows into the city at low level (1); the rising warm air above the urban heat island creates lower pressure near the surface (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Explain the effects of wind and building layout on pollution in cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Calm conditions and enclosed streets trap pollutants and allow concentrations to build up (1); street canyons with traffic have much higher pollution at pavement level (1); well-ventilated layouts and open spaces help to disperse pollution (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Distinguish between primary and secondary pollutants in urban air. [2 marks]
Answer:
Primary pollutants are emitted directly, such as soot, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides (1); secondary pollutants, such as ozone, form when primary pollutants react in the air (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Describe the sources and effects of particulate pollution in cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Particles come from diesel vehicles, brake and tyre wear, industry, heating and construction (1); PM10 and PM2.5 are fine particles which can be inhaled deep into the lungs (1); they increase asthma, heart disease, lung cancer and early deaths (1); they reduce visibility and cover buildings with soot (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain how photochemical smog forms. [4 marks]
Answer:
Vehicles and industry emit nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (1); strong sunlight triggers chemical reactions between them (1); this forms ground-level ozone and other irritants (1); a temperature inversion and surrounding hills can trap the smog, as in Los Angeles (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain how a temperature inversion makes air pollution worse. [3 marks]
Answer:
Warm air above cooler air acts like a lid on the city (1); it prevents pollutants from rising and dispersing (1); concentrations build up near the ground, especially in anticyclonic, calm weather (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain why Mexico City suffers from poor air quality. [4 marks]
Answer:
It lies in a basin about 2,240 m above sea level, surrounded by mountains that trap polluted air (1); temperature inversions are common, especially in winter (1); millions of vehicles and industries release large amounts of pollutants (1); at that altitude there is less oxygen, so fuel burns incompletely and produces more pollutants (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Describe the causes of air pollution in Delhi in winter. [3 marks]
Answer:
Burning of crop stubble in nearby states sends smoke into the city (1); vehicles, industry, construction dust and the burning of waste add particles (1); cool, calm winter weather and inversions trap pollution, so PM2.5 levels are often many times safe limits (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain the health and economic impacts of poor air quality in cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Pollution causes respiratory disease, heart disease and cancer, and millions of premature deaths a year worldwide (1); children and the elderly are most at risk (1); sickness reduces productivity and increases healthcare costs (1); poor air quality can damage buildings and crops and reduce tourism (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the London Congestion Charge and its impact. [3 marks]
Answer:
Introduced in 2003, it charges most drivers to enter central London on weekdays (1); traffic entering the zone fell by about a fifth at first (1); revenue is spent on public transport, though traffic levels have since risen again and congestion remains (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the Ultra Low Emission Zone in London. [3 marks]
Answer:
Launched in 2019 in central London, it charges vehicles that do not meet emission standards (1); it has since expanded to cover all London boroughs (1); roadside nitrogen dioxide in central London has fallen by around 40%, although some people criticise the cost for low-income drivers (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the 1956 Clean Air Act and its impact. [3 marks]
Answer:
It created smokeless zones where coal burning was banned (1); people switched to gas, electricity and smokeless fuel (1); smoke and sulphur dioxide levels fell sharply and winter smogs became rare (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the Hoy No Circula scheme in Mexico City. [3 marks]
Answer:
Started in 1989, it bans most cars from driving one weekday a week, according to the last digit of the number plate (1); it also bans cars on high-pollution days (1); some people bought a second, older car to get round the ban, so the effect on air quality has been limited (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the actions taken to reduce air pollution in Beijing. [4 marks]
Answer:
A national Air Pollution Action Plan was launched in 2013 after extreme smog (1); coal-fired power stations and factories were closed or moved, and homes switched from coal to gas or electric heating (1); older high-polluting vehicles were removed and traffic restrictions were introduced (1); PM2.5 levels have fallen by more than half since 2013 (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Explain how encouraging electric vehicles and public transport can reduce urban air pollution. [3 marks]
Answer:
Electric vehicles produce no exhaust emissions from the tailpipe (1); investment in buses, trams and cycling reduces the number of cars (1); the benefit depends on how the electricity is generated, and tyre and brake particles remain (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Explain how low emission zones and car-free areas improve urban environments. [3 marks]
Answer:
Restricting polluting vehicles reduces nitrogen dioxide and particulates (1); pedestrianised streets reduce noise and make walking and cycling safer (1); retailers sometimes fear lost trade, and traffic may move to other roads (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Evaluate the effectiveness of policies to reduce air pollution in cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Many policies have cut pollution, such as London's Clean Air Act, Beijing's coal reduction and the ULEZ (1); schemes can be costly or unpopular, particularly for poorer households (1); pollution can move elsewhere, as in the case of traffic being diverted (1); effectiveness depends on enforcement and a mix of measures, including cleaner transport and energy (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Evaluation
Assess the impact of urban areas on local climate and weather. [6 marks]
Answer:
Cities are warmer than their surroundings because of the heat island effect (1); they change wind speeds and direction through friction and canyon effects (1); rainfall and thunderstorms may increase downwind, though snow and frost decrease (1); air quality is reduced by particulates and photochemical smog (1); the size of the effects depends on city size, building layout, relief and weather conditions (1); policies such as green infrastructure and emission controls can reduce the impacts (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Define albedo and explain its importance in urban climates. [2 marks]
Answer:
The proportion of incoming solar radiation reflected by a surface (1); dark urban surfaces such as tarmac have a low albedo, so they absorb more heat than grass or light surfaces (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain how the size and density of a city affect the strength of its heat island. [3 marks]
Answer:
The heat island is generally stronger in larger cities, with more heat sources and greater building mass (1); dense, tall buildings trap more heat and reduce airflow (1); small towns and low-density areas have a weaker effect, as more vegetation and open space remain (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Urban heat island
Explain how the heat island varies between summer and winter. [3 marks]
Answer:
In summer, stored solar heat and strong sunshine give hot days and warm nights, with a large effect under high pressure (1); in winter, heat from buildings and vehicles makes cities milder than the countryside (1); the largest differences occur at night when skies are clear and winds are light (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Precipitation
Explain how cities affect humidity and sunshine. [3 marks]
Answer:
Urban areas often have lower relative humidity because of higher temperatures and less evaporation from vegetation and soil (1); pollution and haze reduce the amount of sunshine and solar radiation reaching the surface (1); dense cloud and smog are more frequent in winter, reducing sunshine (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Wind
Explain how building design can reduce wind problems around tall buildings. [2 marks]
Answer:
Wind tunnel and computer tests can predict where gusts will form (1); designs such as rounded corners, podiums and trees and canopies at ground level can deflect the wind away from pedestrians (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain why nitrogen dioxide pollution is a problem in UK cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Diesel vehicles are a major source and roadside concentrations often exceed legal limits (1); it irritates the lungs and increases asthma and other respiratory diseases (1); levels are highest on busy streets with tall buildings that trap the air, and campaigners have taken the Government to court (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain why cities in valleys or basins are more affected by air pollution. [3 marks]
Answer:
Surrounding hills block air flow and stop pollution from dispersing (1); cold air sinks into the basin at night, forming temperature inversions (1); examples include Los Angeles, Mexico City and Stuttgart (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Describe how Los Angeles has tackled photochemical smog. [3 marks]
Answer:
Los Angeles sits in a basin with sunshine, sea-breeze inversions and millions of cars, so it suffers from smog (1); California set vehicle emission standards from 1967, and catalytic converters became compulsory (1); smog has fallen significantly, though ozone is still above safe levels on some days (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Air quality
Explain how urban trees and green spaces improve air quality. [3 marks]
Answer:
Leaves capture particles from the air (1); trees absorb carbon dioxide and provide shade that lowers temperatures (1); effects are small compared with cutting emissions, and some trees release gases that contribute to ozone formation (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
Describe the WHO guidelines for air quality. [2 marks]
Answer:
The World Health Organization sets recommended limits for pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide and ozone (1); the 2021 guideline for annual average PM2.5 is 5 micrograms per cubic metre, and most cities exceed it (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Pollution reduction policies
The average PM2.5 level in a city fell from 90 to 33 micrograms per cubic metre. Calculate the percentage decrease to the nearest whole number. [2 marks]
Answer:
(90 − 33) ÷ 90 × 100 (1); 63% (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.3.4 · Fog
Explain why thunderstorms and fog can both be affected by pollution in cities. [2 marks]
Answer:
Pollution particles act as condensation nuclei, which can increase cloud droplets and rainfall intensity (1); they also provide nuclei for fog formation, and make fog denser and longer-lasting in cold weather (1).

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