AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.3

Urban waste and environmental issues

Exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.3 Urban waste and environmental issues in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

All questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Describe the main sources of urban waste. [4 marks]
Answer:
Any four from: households and personal consumption, such as food and packaging (1); shops, offices and other commercial activity (1); industry and manufacturing (1); construction and demolition (1); hospitals, schools and public services (1); street sweeping and parks (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Explain how the amount of waste per person is related to income. [3 marks]
Answer:
Wealthier people consume more goods, food and packaging, so more waste is produced (1); high-income countries produce several times more waste per person than low-income countries (1); as incomes rise, waste changes from mainly organic to packaging, paper, plastic and electronic goods (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Compare the waste streams of high-income and low-income cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
High-income cities have more paper, plastic, glass and metal from packaging (1); low-income cities have a higher proportion of organic or food waste (1); e-waste and bulky waste are higher in high-income cities (1); in low-income cities, much waste is reused or recycled informally, and a lot of it is not collected (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Explain how lifestyles and attitudes affect the amount and type of urban waste. [3 marks]
Answer:
Convenience, fast fashion and online shopping increase packaging and short-lived products (1); attitudes to the environment and cost influence whether people reuse, repair and recycle (1); education, local schemes and social norms can reduce waste or increase recycling (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
A city of 6 million people produces 3.6 million tonnes of household waste each year. Calculate the waste per person in kilograms. [2 marks]
Answer:
3,600,000 tonnes ÷ 6,000,000 people = 0.6 tonnes (1); 600 kg per person (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
A city collects 3.0 million tonnes of waste and recycles 1.2 million tonnes. Calculate the recycling rate as a percentage. [2 marks]
Answer:
1.2 ÷ 3.0 × 100 (1); 40% (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Describe global trends in municipal waste generation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Cities produced about 2 billion tonnes in 2016 (1); this is projected to rise to about 3.4 billion tonnes by 2050, with the fastest growth in Africa and South Asia (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Explain why electronic waste is a growing problem. [3 marks]
Answer:
Consumers replace phones and devices frequently, and many are designed with short lives (1); about 50 million tonnes are produced each year and less than a fifth is formally recycled (1); e-waste contains valuable metals but also toxic materials such as lead and mercury, which harm people when processed unsafely (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Explain the importance of food waste in cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
About a third of food produced is lost or wasted (1); rotting food in landfill produces methane, a greenhouse gas (1); wasted food means wasted land, water and energy, while many people are short of food (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Describe the waste hierarchy. [3 marks]
Answer:
Prevention or reduction is the preferred option, followed by reuse (1); then recycling and recovery of materials or energy (1); disposal by landfill or incineration without energy recovery is the least preferred (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Describe the impacts of unregulated waste dumping, using an example such as Dandora in Nairobi. [3 marks]
Answer:
Open dumps, such as Dandora, contain large amounts of mixed waste, which is often burned (1); smoke, toxic leachate and heavy metals pollute air, soil and water and cause disease (1); thousands of people earn a living by collecting recyclables there but in unsafe conditions (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain the environmental and social impacts of e-waste recycling at Agbogbloshie in Ghana. [3 marks]
Answer:
Imported electronic goods were broken up and cables burned to recover copper (1); burning released toxic fumes and heavy metals which polluted air, soil and the Korle Lagoon (1); workers, many of them young, had health problems; the site was cleared in 2021 but the activity moved elsewhere (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of recycling. [4 marks]
Answer:
Recycling reduces the use of raw materials and energy (1); it cuts the amount of waste sent to landfill and incineration (1); collection, sorting and reprocessing can be costly, and some materials cannot be recycled or are contaminated (1); recycling can still require energy and transport, and markets for recycled goods can be unstable (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain what is meant by waste recovery and give examples. [3 marks]
Answer:
Recovering useful materials or energy from waste (1); composting and anaerobic digestion turn organic waste into fertiliser and biogas (1); energy-from-waste plants burn waste to make electricity and heat (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain the environmental impacts of incineration. [4 marks]
Answer:
Burning reduces the volume of waste by about 90% and saves land (1); heat can be used to generate electricity and for district heating (1); emissions can include carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dioxins unless filters are used (1); toxic ash must be disposed of safely, and the plant can be seen as an eyesore with traffic and odour (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain the environmental impacts of landfill. [4 marks]
Answer:
Landfill uses large areas of land and can spoil the landscape (1); rotting waste produces methane, a greenhouse gas, and carbon dioxide (1); leachate can contaminate groundwater and rivers if the site is not lined (1); it causes smell, litter, pests and traffic, and wastes the resources buried (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain how leachate and methane from landfill sites are managed. [3 marks]
Answer:
Sites are lined with clay or plastic to prevent leachate from escaping (1); leachate is collected and treated (1); methane is captured and burned for heat or electricity (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain what is meant by submergence of waste and its impacts. [3 marks]
Answer:
Dumping waste into the sea or oceans (1); plastic and other waste harm marine life through entanglement and ingestion and form patches such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (1); microplastics enter the food chain, and international agreements limit the dumping of many materials at sea (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain the trade in waste and the problems it causes. [3 marks]
Answer:
Countries ship waste, such as plastic and e-waste, abroad for recycling or disposal, often from high-income to lower-income countries (1); poor handling in importing countries leads to pollution and health problems (1); China's National Sword policy of 2018 banned most plastic waste imports, and the Basel Convention was agreed to control the trade in hazardous waste (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain why waste is traded between countries. [2 marks]
Answer:
Labour and disposal costs are lower in some countries, and recyclers abroad want materials like metals and plastics (1); importing countries may lack their own supply, while exporters avoid the cost of landfill and recycling at home (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Compare incineration and landfill as waste disposal methods in London. [4 marks]
Answer:
Landfill sites around London were filled and landfill tax and the EU Landfill Directive made them more expensive (1); energy-from-waste plants such as SELCHP in Lewisham burn waste and produce electricity (1); incineration needs far less land and cuts methane, but produces air emissions and ash (1); landfill is cheaper per tonne in some places but wastes land and gives off methane and leachate (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Explain how policy has reduced the use of landfill in the UK. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Landfill Tax, introduced in 1996, has made landfill more expensive (1); the EU Landfill Directive of 1999 set targets to reduce the biodegradable waste sent to landfill (1); the share of household waste landfilled fell from about 80% in the 1990s to around a tenth, with more recycling and incineration (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Describe the SELCHP energy-from-waste plant in Lewisham. [3 marks]
Answer:
Opened in 1994 in south east London, it burns around 400,000 tonnes of household waste a year (1); it generates electricity for tens of thousands of homes (1); it also supplies heat to nearby buildings, and reduces landfill but creates emissions and ash (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Describe how Copenhagen uses waste incineration. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Amager Bakke plant, opened in 2017, burns waste to produce electricity and district heating for the city (1); its design includes a ski slope and park on the roof (1); critics argue that it competes with recycling and the amount of waste burned is large (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Describe how Singapore manages its waste. [3 marks]
Answer:
Most non-recyclable waste is burned in energy-from-waste plants, which reduces its volume by 90% (1); the ash is taken to Semakau, an offshore landfill island opened in 1999 (1); recycling campaigns aim to extend the life of the landfill, as there is very little land left (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Comparing incineration and landfill
Evaluate incineration and landfill as methods of waste disposal for a large city. [4 marks]
Answer:
Incineration reduces the volume of waste and can generate energy (1); it needs expensive plants and filters, and produces emissions and toxic ash (1); landfill is simple and cheap but uses land and releases greenhouse gases (1); both are lower in the waste hierarchy than reduction, reuse and recycling, so a combined strategy is needed (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Describe how San Francisco has reduced its waste. [3 marks]
Answer:
A mandatory recycling and composting law was passed in 2009, with three-bin collection (1); the city diverts about 80% of waste from landfill (1); it has set a target of zero waste, supported by charges for waste and bans on certain plastics (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Describe how Sweden and Kamikatsu in Japan manage waste. [3 marks]
Answer:
Sweden sends less than 1% of household waste to landfill, with recycling and energy-from-waste providing district heating (1); the town of Kamikatsu in Japan sorts waste into around 45 categories (1); it aims for zero waste, with a reuse shop, and residents have to take their waste to a collection centre (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Explain the impact of the carrier bag charge in England. [3 marks]
Answer:
Introduced in 2015, it charged for single-use plastic bags in large shops (1); bag use by the main retailers fell by over 90% (1); it shows how a small financial incentive can change behaviour, although total plastic waste remains high (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Explain how extended producer responsibility and deposit schemes reduce waste. [3 marks]
Answer:
Producers pay for the collection and recycling of the packaging they sell (1); this encourages them to design packaging that is easier to reuse and recycle (1); deposit return schemes pay people for returning bottles and cans, which increases recycling rates (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Describe the role of the Zabbaleen in Cairo. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Zabbaleen are an informal community of waste collectors who collect household waste from Cairo (1); they sort and recycle a large proportion, up to 80% of what they collect (1); their work was undermined when the city gave contracts to foreign companies in 2003 (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Describe the Green Exchange programme in Curitiba. [3 marks]
Answer:
Residents in low-income areas swap bags of recyclable waste for fresh fruit and vegetables or bus tickets (1); this reduces litter in places where lorries cannot easily reach (1); it improves nutrition, supports local farmers and increases recycling (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Explain the role of the informal sector in waste management in cities in developing countries. [3 marks]
Answer:
Waste pickers collect, sort and sell recyclable materials, recovering a large share of waste at little cost to the city (1); this provides income for poor people (1); working conditions are often unsafe, and workers may lack legal protection (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Strategies
Assess the success of strategies to manage urban waste. [6 marks]
Answer:
Taxes and charges, such as the UK landfill tax, change behaviour and reduce landfill (1); recycling and composting reduce resource use and emissions (1); energy-from-waste plants recover energy and save land (1); however, some waste is exported, and informal recycling may be unsafe (1); strategies depend on public participation and enforcement, which differ between cities (1); the most sustainable approach reduces waste at source, and many cities still rely on disposal methods that are lower in the waste hierarchy (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Atmospheric pollution
Compare air pollution problems in London and Delhi. [4 marks]
Answer:
In London the main source is road transport, especially diesel vehicles, and nitrogen dioxide is the main problem (1); in Delhi vehicles, industry, construction dust and crop burning produce very high levels of particulates (1); Delhi's levels are many times higher than London's and are worst in winter (1); London has stronger regulation, such as the ULEZ, whereas enforcement in Delhi is weaker (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Water pollution
Explain the causes of water pollution in cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Untreated or poorly treated sewage and overflows enter rivers (1); industrial effluent contains chemicals and heavy metals (1); runoff from roads and rooftops brings oil, litter and metals (1); solid waste dumped in rivers and drains adds plastic and nutrients (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Water pollution
Describe how pollution and recovery of the River Thames have changed over time. [4 marks]
Answer:
By the 1950s the tidal Thames was so polluted that it was declared biologically dead in 1957 (1); better sewage treatment and the closure of polluting industries allowed fish to return (1); more than 100 species of fish and seals and porpoises are now found in the estuary (1); problems remain, such as sewage overflows and microplastics (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Water pollution
Describe water pollution in the Citarum River in Indonesia. [3 marks]
Answer:
The river flows through West Java and supplies millions of people with water and irrigation (1); it is contaminated by untreated waste from textile factories, sewage and household rubbish (1); a clean-up programme started in 2018, with enforcement against factories and rubbish removal, but pollution remains high (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Water pollution
Explain the causes and impacts of pollution of the River Yamuna in Delhi. [3 marks]
Answer:
Delhi's stretch of the river is a small part of its length but receives most of the pollution, mainly untreated sewage and industrial waste (1); oxygen levels fall, so fish and other aquatic life die (1); people who use the water for bathing, drinking and farming risk disease (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Water pollution
Explain strategies to reduce water pollution in urban areas. [3 marks]
Answer:
Building and upgrading sewage treatment works so all sewage is treated (1); laws and fines to control industrial discharges, and the enforcement of them (1); using SUDS and street sweeping to reduce polluted runoff, and campaigns such as India's Namami Gange programme (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Define dereliction and brownfield land. [2 marks]
Answer:
Dereliction is land and buildings that are abandoned and in poor condition (1); brownfield land is land that has previously been developed and is available for redevelopment (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Explain the causes of dereliction in cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Industrial closure after deindustrialisation leaves abandoned factories, docks and warehouses (1); population loss from shrinking cities leaves empty houses, as in Detroit (1); changing land use, transport or retail patterns leave sites unused, and owners may not invest in them (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Explain the environmental and social impacts of dereliction. [3 marks]
Answer:
Derelict sites are unattractive and reduce property values (1); land may be contaminated with chemicals and waste, which can pollute soil and groundwater (1); empty buildings attract crime, fires and fly-tipping, and discourage investment (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Explain how contaminated brownfield land can be cleaned up. [3 marks]
Answer:
Contaminated soil can be removed and replaced, or capped with clean material (1); bioremediation uses plants or microbes to break down pollutants (1); testing and a plan are needed first, and the process is costly and slow (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Describe how the Emscher Park in Germany's Ruhr region reduced dereliction. [3 marks]
Answer:
From 1989 to 1999 the International Building Exhibition transformed an old coal and steel region (1); old industrial sites, such as the Duisburg-Nord steelworks, were converted into parks, cultural venues and climbing walls (1); rivers were cleaned and new businesses were attracted, although unemployment remained a problem (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Describe how derelict infrastructure has been reused in New York. [3 marks]
Answer:
The High Line, an abandoned elevated railway, was converted into a park that opened in 2009 (1); it attracts millions of visitors a year and has led to new development around it (1); it has also caused house prices and rents to rise, which led to displacement and gentrification, and Fresh Kills landfill is being turned into a large park (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Dereliction
Describe the approaches used to tackle dereliction in Detroit. [3 marks]
Answer:
Tens of thousands of abandoned buildings have been demolished since 2014 (1); vacant lots have been used for urban farms and community gardens, and the city has a land bank to manage vacant property (1); the scale of vacant land makes it difficult, and some areas still lack investment (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.3.7 · Evaluation
Assess the success of strategies used to tackle environmental problems in contrasting urban areas. [6 marks]
Answer:
Clean air policies have reduced pollution in London and Beijing (1); sewage treatment and controls have helped the Thames to recover (1); regeneration has reused brownfield sites such as Emscher Park and the High Line (1); however, pollution remains severe in Delhi and the Citarum, where enforcement and finance are weaker (1); some schemes cause gentrification and displacement (1); success depends on money, governance and public support, and cities in lower-income countries face the biggest challenges (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Waste generation
Explain why construction and demolition waste is significant in urban areas. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is the largest waste stream by weight in the UK, produced by building, demolition and excavation (1); much of it can be reused or recycled, for example as aggregate for roads, but some is dumped illegally (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.3.6 · Disposal approaches
Explain what is meant by fly-tipping and its impacts. [2 marks]
Answer:
The illegal dumping of waste on land that is not licensed to receive it (1); it spoils the landscape, can pollute soil and water, and costs councils money to clear (1).

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