AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.1

Global governance and the global commons

Exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.1 Global governance and the global commons in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

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Question 1 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Nature of governance
Define the term global governance. [2 marks]
Answer:
The rules, norms, laws and institutions that regulate relationships and issues between countries and other global actors (1); there is no world government, so it relies on cooperation and agreement between states (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Nature of governance
Distinguish between norms, laws and institutions in global governance. [3 marks]
Answer:
Norms are shared expectations of acceptable behaviour, such as the rejection of slavery (1); laws are formal rules, such as treaties and conventions, that states agree to follow (1); institutions are organisations, such as the UN, that create, monitor and enforce rules (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Nature of governance
Explain why global governance has developed since 1945. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Second World War led to a wish to prevent future conflicts through cooperation (1); growing trade, finance and communications links mean that problems cross borders (1); issues such as climate change, disease and refugees cannot be solved by one country alone (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Nature of governance
Explain what is meant by national sovereignty and why it limits global governance. [3 marks]
Answer:
Sovereignty is the right of a state to govern itself without outside interference (1); countries can refuse to sign or can withdraw from agreements (1); there is no world police force, so rules are hard to enforce against powerful states (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the origins and membership of the United Nations. [2 marks]
Answer:
Founded in 1945 after the Second World War to maintain international peace and promote cooperation (1); it now has 193 member states (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe how the UN can promote growth and stability. [4 marks]
Answer:
Any four from: peacekeeping missions monitor ceasefires and protect civilians (1); agencies such as the WHO and UNICEF improve health, for example through vaccination programmes (1); the World Food Programme delivers emergency food aid (1); UNHCR protects refugees (1); the UN sets development targets such as the Sustainable Development Goals (1); UNEP supports environmental agreements (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the role of the UN Security Council. [3 marks]
Answer:
It has 15 members, of which five are permanent: the USA, UK, France, Russia and China (1); it can impose sanctions and authorise peacekeeping or military action (1); each permanent member holds a veto that can block any resolution (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Explain how the Security Council veto can limit the effectiveness of the UN. [3 marks]
Answer:
A single permanent member can block action that it or its allies oppose (1); this has stopped strong responses to conflicts such as Syria and the war in Ukraine (1); the five permanent members reflect the world of 1945 and many countries argue they do not represent the world today (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Calculate the Security Council's members as a percentage of the 193 UN members. Give your answer to one decimal place. [2 marks]
Answer:
15 ÷ 193 × 100 (1); 7.8% (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the work of UN peacekeeping and its limitations. [3 marks]
Answer:
Peacekeepers are sent with the agreement of the parties to monitor ceasefires and protect civilians, such as in South Sudan and the DR Congo (1); they have sometimes failed to prevent violence, as at Rwanda in 1994 and Srebrenica in 1995 (1); there have been cases of abuse by peacekeepers and missions depend on states supplying troops and funds (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the role of the World Health Organization and one criticism of its work. [3 marks]
Answer:
The WHO sets health standards and coordinates responses to disease outbreaks (1); its vaccination work helped to eradicate smallpox by 1980 (1); the COVAX scheme in the COVID-19 pandemic aimed to share vaccines fairly, but richer countries bought up early supplies (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the role of UNHCR. [2 marks]
Answer:
The UN Refugee Agency protects refugees under the 1951 Refugee Convention and provides shelter and aid (1); it depends on voluntary funding from governments, so it is often short of money (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · United Nations
Describe the role of UNEP. [2 marks]
Answer:
The United Nations Environment Programme was set up in 1972 to coordinate the UN's environmental work (1); it monitors the state of the environment and helps countries to develop policies and agreements (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Economic institutions
Describe the roles of the IMF and the World Bank. [3 marks]
Answer:
Both were set up at Bretton Woods in 1944 (1); the IMF promotes monetary stability and lends to countries in financial difficulty (1); the World Bank lends for development projects such as roads, schools and dams (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Economic institutions
Explain how the IMF and the World Bank can exacerbate inequalities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Loans have come with conditions, such as the structural adjustment programmes of the 1980s and 1990s that required cuts in public spending and privatisation (1); cuts in health and education services hit the poorest people hardest (1); voting power depends on financial contributions, so rich countries, especially the USA, dominate decisions (1); some projects, such as large dams, displaced local communities (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Economic institutions
Explain why some developing countries criticise the World Trade Organization. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rich countries have larger negotiating teams and more power in talks (1); rules on subsidies and intellectual property can favour rich countries and TNCs (1); progress on issues of importance to farmers in poor countries, such as agricultural subsidies, has stalled (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Economic institutions
Describe the roles of the G7 and the G20. [3 marks]
Answer:
The G7 brings together seven wealthy economies: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the USA (1); the G20 also includes emerging economies such as China, India and Brazil, and covers most of world GDP (1); both discuss economic and global issues but cannot enforce decisions (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Legal institutions
Describe the roles of the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court. [3 marks]
Answer:
The ICJ, in The Hague, settles legal disputes between states (1); the ICC, set up in 2002, tries individuals for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity (1); both depend on state cooperation, and major powers including the USA, China and Russia have not joined the ICC (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Environmental governance
Explain why international agreements are needed to tackle climate change. [3 marks]
Answer:
Greenhouse gases mix in the atmosphere so emissions anywhere affect everywhere (1); the Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding targets for developed countries, and the Paris Agreement (2015) asked all countries for national pledges to limit warming to well below 2°C (1); weaknesses are that pledges are voluntary and countries can withdraw, as the USA has done more than once (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Environmental governance
Explain why the Montreal Protocol is seen as a successful global agreement. [3 marks]
Answer:
Agreed in 1987, it phased out CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (1); almost every country signed, and a fund helped developing countries to change (1); the ozone layer is recovering and is expected to return to earlier levels later this century (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Environmental governance
Describe the role of the International Maritime Organization. [3 marks]
Answer:
A UN agency that sets global rules for shipping (1); the MARPOL convention limits the dumping of oil and plastics at sea (1); since 2020 ships have had to use fuel with a lower sulphur content to reduce air pollution (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Development goals
Describe the Sustainable Development Goals. [3 marks]
Answer:
There are 17 goals adopted by all UN members in 2015 (1); the target date for achieving them is 2030 (1); they cover poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean energy and climate action (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Development goals
Explain how the Millennium Development Goals showed both the strengths and weaknesses of global governance. [3 marks]
Answer:
The eight goals (2000–2015) focused attention and aid on poverty, health and education (1); the number of people in extreme poverty was halved, mostly because of growth in China and India (1); progress was uneven, and many sub-Saharan African countries missed targets such as reducing child and maternal mortality (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Development goals
Explain why it is difficult to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. [3 marks]
Answer:
Progress depends on voluntary action by governments (1); there are funding gaps, and conflict and pandemics have set back progress (1); goals can conflict, for example economic growth can increase emissions (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Non-state actors
Explain the role of NGOs in global governance. [3 marks]
Answer:
Organisations such as Oxfam, Greenpeace and Médecins Sans Frontières campaign to influence governments and public opinion (1); they monitor problems and provide independent data (1); they deliver aid where governments cannot or will not, but are not elected and may reflect donors' interests (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Scales
Explain how interactions between the local, national and global scales are important in global governance. [4 marks]
Answer:
Global agreements need national governments to turn them into laws (1); regional organisations, such as the EU and the African Union, set rules that apply across several countries (1); local authorities and communities carry out actions, such as recycling schemes or protecting local reserves (1); global rules affect local people, for example fishing quotas affect local fishing communities (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Issues
Explain how global governance can reproduce unequal power between countries. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rich countries dominate decision-making in the IMF, World Bank and Security Council (1); rules, such as those on patents, can be written to suit powerful countries and TNCs (1); developing countries often have smaller delegations and less capacity to take part in negotiations (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Issues
Explain why it is difficult to enforce global agreements. [3 marks]
Answer:
States can refuse to sign or withdraw, because of sovereignty (1); there are few powers of enforcement beyond sanctions and diplomatic pressure (1); countries put national interests first, and some free-ride on the efforts of others (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Issues
Explain what is meant by free-riding in international agreements. [2 marks]
Answer:
A country gains the benefits of an agreement without bearing its costs (1); for example, not cutting emissions while others do, which weakens the agreement and encourages others to follow (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Issues
Evaluate the success of the United Nations in promoting global stability and development. [4 marks]
Answer:
Successes include the eradication of smallpox, humanitarian aid and the development goals (1); peacekeeping and diplomacy have helped to end conflicts (1); however, Security Council divisions can block action and failures such as Rwanda damaged its reputation (1); the UN depends on funding and cooperation from member states, so its success is limited (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.1.4 · Everyday lives
Explain how global governance affects the lives of people in the UK. [3 marks]
Answer:
Trade rules affect the prices and availability of goods in shops (1); climate agreements affect energy policy, for example the UK's net zero target (1); international health guidance and aviation and shipping safety rules affect travel and safety (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Concept of the commons
Define the term global commons. [2 marks]
Answer:
Resource domains that lie outside the political reach of any one nation (1); examples are the high seas, the atmosphere, Antarctica and outer space (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Concept of the commons
Describe the main global commons. [4 marks]
Answer:
Any four from: the high seas, which lie beyond national waters (1); the deep seabed (1); the atmosphere (1); Antarctica (1); outer space (1); cyberspace is sometimes included (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Concept of the commons
Explain the tragedy of the commons. [3 marks]
Answer:
Users acting in their own interest overuse a shared resource (1); the benefits go to the individual user but the costs of damage are shared by everyone (1); the resource is degraded or depleted, such as overfishing of the high seas (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Concept of the commons
Explain what is meant by the common heritage of mankind. [2 marks]
Answer:
The principle that areas such as the deep seabed and the Moon belong to all humanity and should be used peacefully (1); resources should be shared fairly, including with developing countries that cannot afford to explore them (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Concept of the commons
Explain why the global commons are important to people and the planet. [3 marks]
Answer:
The oceans absorb about a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions and most of the extra heat from global warming (1); they support biodiversity and provide fish and jobs (1); the atmosphere and its ozone layer protect life from harmful radiation (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Rights and sustainability
Explain the rights of all people to the benefits of the global commons. [2 marks]
Answer:
All people have a right to benefit from resources such as fish stocks, climate stability and scientific knowledge (1); in practice, rich countries with the ships, technology and money take most of the benefits (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Rights and sustainability
Explain why the rights of all to sustainable development must be balanced against the need to protect the global commons. [4 marks]
Answer:
Sustainable development means meeting the needs of the present without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs (1); poorer countries argue they have a right to use resources and grow, as rich countries did (1); unlimited growth would damage the commons through emissions, overfishing and pollution (1); the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities asks richer countries to do more and to provide finance and technology (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Rights and sustainability
Explain why rich and poor countries disagree over who should protect the atmosphere. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rich countries produced most of the historical emissions and have the money and technology to cut them (1); China is now the largest emitter and India's emissions are growing, so rich countries argue everyone must act (1); developing countries point to their lower emissions per person and want finance to adapt and develop cleanly (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · High seas
Describe the rules governing the oceans under UNCLOS. [3 marks]
Answer:
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) sets the rules for the seas (1); coastal states control an Exclusive Economic Zone out to 200 nautical miles (1); the seas beyond are the high seas, open to all, and the deep seabed is managed by the International Seabed Authority (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · High seas
Explain why fishing on the high seas is difficult to control. [3 marks]
Answer:
No single country has authority over the high seas (1); ships can fish far from the coast, so illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is hard to detect (1); regional fisheries bodies have limited powers to punish those who break rules, and over a third of fish stocks are overfished (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · High seas
Describe the aim of the High Seas Treaty adopted in 2023. [2 marks]
Answer:
An agreement to protect marine biodiversity in waters beyond national control (1); it allows marine protected areas to be created on the high seas, helping to protect 30% of the oceans by 2030 (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · High seas
Explain the issues surrounding mining of the deep seabed. [3 marks]
Answer:
Metal-rich nodules contain nickel, cobalt and manganese used in batteries and electronics (1); mining could destroy slow-growing habitats that are poorly understood (1); the International Seabed Authority regulates the area and there is debate over whether commercial mining should be allowed at all (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Atmosphere and space
Explain why the atmosphere is difficult to protect as a global common. [3 marks]
Answer:
Nobody owns it and pollution crosses borders (1); countries that cut emissions share the benefits with those that do not (1); countries disagree over fairness and over how to balance growth with protection (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Atmosphere and space
Describe the Outer Space Treaty (1967). [2 marks]
Answer:
No country can claim sovereignty over the Moon or other celestial bodies (1); space must be used for peaceful purposes and exploration benefits all countries (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Atmosphere and space
Explain how space debris shows the problems of governing a global common. [3 marks]
Answer:
Thousands of satellites and fragments are in orbit (1); collisions create more debris and could make some orbits unusable (1); there are few binding rules on who removes debris, and countries and companies launch with little coordination (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Atmosphere and space
Explain why small island developing states are vulnerable if the global commons are not protected. [3 marks]
Answer:
Low-lying islands such as the Maldives and Tuvalu face sea level rise and flooding (1); they depend on fishing, tourism and coral reefs that are damaged by warming and ocean acidification (1); they produce few emissions and have little power to influence global decisions (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Evaluation
Evaluate how successfully global governance has protected the global commons. [4 marks]
Answer:
The Montreal Protocol has helped the ozone layer to recover (1); the Antarctic Treaty has kept the continent peaceful and protected (1); however, emissions are still rising and many fish stocks are overfished (1); success depends on agreement and enforcement, and on major powers taking part (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Everyday lives
Explain how the state of the global commons affects the lives of students in the UK. [3 marks]
Answer:
Climate change affects UK weather, flooding and food prices (1); fish stocks and jobs in fishing depend on how the seas are managed (1); satellites in orbit provide GPS, communications and weather forecasts (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.1.5 · Atmosphere and space
Describe the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [2 marks]
Answer:
Set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and UNEP (1); it assesses the scientific evidence on climate change in regular reports to guide governments (1).

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