AQA A-level Psychology · 4.2.3

Research methods

50 exam-style questions with answers for 4.2.3 Research methods in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

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Question 1 · Spec 4.2.3 · Experimental method
Distinguish between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment. [2 marks]
Answer:
A laboratory experiment takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and controls extraneous variables (1); a field experiment also manipulates the IV, but takes place in a natural, everyday setting (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.2.3 · Experimental method
Explain one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments. [2 marks]
Answer:
Strength: high control over extraneous variables, so cause and effect can be established and the study replicated (1); limitation: an artificial setting may lack ecological validity and produce demand characteristics (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.2.3 · Experimental method
Distinguish between a natural experiment and a quasi-experiment. [2 marks]
Answer:
In a natural experiment the IV varies naturally and is not manipulated by the researcher, e.g. the effect of a natural disaster (1); in a quasi-experiment the IV is a pre-existing difference between people, e.g. gender or age (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.2.3 · Observational techniques
Distinguish between naturalistic and controlled observation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Naturalistic observation takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur, with no interference (1); controlled observation takes place in a structured environment where some variables are managed (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.2.3 · Observational techniques
Distinguish between covert and overt observation, and give one issue with each. [4 marks]
Answer:
Covert: participants are unaware they are being observed (1); this reduces demand characteristics but raises ethical issues of consent (1); overt: participants know they are being observed (1); this is more ethical but behaviour may change due to awareness of being watched (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.2.3 · Observational techniques
Explain one strength and one limitation of participant observation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Strength: the researcher gains insight into participants' lives, increasing validity (1); limitation: the researcher may 'go native' and lose objectivity (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.2.3 · Self-report techniques
Distinguish between structured and unstructured interviews. [2 marks]
Answer:
Structured interviews use a list of predetermined questions asked in a fixed order (1); unstructured interviews are more like a conversation, with no set questions, and the interviewee is encouraged to expand on answers (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.2.3 · Self-report techniques
Explain one strength and one limitation of questionnaires. [2 marks]
Answer:
Strength: they are cost-effective and can gather large amounts of data quickly, and participants may be more willing to reveal personal information than in an interview (1); limitation: responses may be affected by social desirability bias or response bias, e.g. acquiescence (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Questionnaire construction
Distinguish between open and closed questions. [2 marks]
Answer:
Open questions have no fixed range of answers, so produce qualitative data that are rich in detail (1); closed questions have a fixed number of possible responses, so produce quantitative data that are easy to analyse (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.2.3 · Correlations
Explain the difference between a correlation and an experiment. [2 marks]
Answer:
In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV, so cause and effect can be inferred (1); in a correlation, there is no manipulation of variables; the researcher measures the relationship between two co-variables, so cause and effect cannot be established (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.2.3 · Content analysis
Outline content analysis as a research method. [3 marks]
Answer:
An indirect observation of people through artefacts they have produced, e.g. TV adverts, diaries or books (1); the researcher decides on coding units/behavioural categories and counts how many times each occurs (quantitative) (1); or uses thematic analysis to identify recurring themes (qualitative) (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.2.3 · Case studies
Explain one strength and one limitation of case studies. [2 marks]
Answer:
Strength: they give rich, detailed insights and can study unusual behaviour, e.g. HM (1); limitation: findings are based on a small sample or a single person, so cannot be generalised (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Aims and hypotheses
Explain the difference between an aim and a hypothesis. [2 marks]
Answer:
An aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate (1); a hypothesis is a clear, precise, testable statement of the relationship between variables (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Aims and hypotheses
Explain the difference between a directional and a non-directional hypothesis. [2 marks]
Answer:
A directional hypothesis states the direction of the difference or relationship, e.g. 'more' or 'less' (1); a non-directional hypothesis states that there will be a difference or relationship but not its direction (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Aims and hypotheses
A researcher wants to test whether listening to music affects recall of a word list. Write a non-directional hypothesis. [2 marks]
Answer:
There will be a difference in the number of words recalled from a list of 20 (1); between participants who listen to music while learning and those who learn in silence (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Sampling
Explain the difference between a population and a sample. [2 marks]
Answer:
A population is the group of people the researcher is interested in and wants to generalise to (1); a sample is a smaller group drawn from the population that is actually studied (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Sampling
Outline random and systematic sampling. [2 marks]
Answer:
Random sampling: every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected, e.g. names drawn from a hat or random number generator (1); systematic sampling: every nth member of the target population is selected from a sampling frame (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Sampling
Outline stratified sampling and explain one strength of it. [3 marks]
Answer:
The sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the population (1); participants are randomly selected from each stratum in proportion (1); strength: the sample is representative, so findings can be generalised (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Sampling
Outline opportunity and volunteer sampling and give one limitation of each. [4 marks]
Answer:
Opportunity sampling: selecting whoever is available and willing at the time (1); limitation: it is unrepresentative and researcher bias may influence selection (1); volunteer sampling: participants select themselves, e.g. by replying to an advert (1); limitation: volunteer bias, as volunteers may be more motivated or curious, so the sample is not representative (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Pilot studies
Explain the aims of a pilot study. [2 marks]
Answer:
A small-scale trial run of the investigation before the main study (1); to check procedures, materials and instructions work, so problems can be corrected, saving time and money (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Experimental designs
Outline the repeated measures design and give one limitation of it. [2 marks]
Answer:
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment (1); limitation: order effects, e.g. practice or fatigue, may affect performance in the second condition (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Experimental designs
Outline the independent groups design and give one limitation of it. [2 marks]
Answer:
Participants are allocated to different groups, each group doing one condition (1); limitation: participant variables differ between groups, which may act as confounding variables (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Experimental designs
Outline the matched pairs design. [2 marks]
Answer:
Pairs of participants are matched on a variable that may affect the DV, e.g. IQ (1); one member of each pair does condition A and the other condition B (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Observational design
Explain the difference between event sampling and time sampling. [2 marks]
Answer:
Event sampling: a target behaviour is counted every time it occurs (1); time sampling: behaviour is recorded at fixed time intervals, e.g. every 30 seconds (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Observational design
Explain what is meant by behavioural categories and why they should be operationalised. [2 marks]
Answer:
Breaking the target behaviour into components that are observable and measurable, e.g. 'aggression' into hitting, pushing, kicking (1); clear categories make data collection more objective and increase inter-observer reliability (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Variables
Define operationalisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured (1); e.g. 'memory' as the number of words correctly recalled from a list of 20 (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Variables
Explain the difference between an extraneous and a confounding variable. [2 marks]
Answer:
An extraneous variable is any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled, e.g. noise (1); a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV, so it is impossible to know whether changes in the DV are due to the IV or the confounding variable (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Control
Explain how counterbalancing reduces order effects. [2 marks]
Answer:
Half the participants do condition A then B, and the other half do B then A (ABBA) (1); so order effects are balanced out across conditions (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Control
Explain the difference between randomisation and standardisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Randomisation: using chance methods to control the effects of bias when designing materials or deciding the order of conditions (1); standardisation: all participants are subject to the same environment, information and experience, e.g. standardised instructions (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Demand characteristics
Explain what is meant by demand characteristics and investigator effects. [2 marks]
Answer:
Demand characteristics: cues that reveal the aim of the study, so participants change their behaviour, e.g. to please the researcher (1); investigator effects: any unwanted influence of the investigator on the DV, e.g. through their expectations or behaviour (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Ethics
Outline three ethical issues identified in the BPS code of ethics. [3 marks]
Answer:
Informed consent: participants should be made aware of the aims, procedures and their rights before agreeing to take part (1); deception: misleading participants or withholding information (1); protection from harm: participants should not be placed at more risk than in everyday life, and have the right to withdraw and to confidentiality (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Ethics
Explain two ways of dealing with deception in research. [2 marks]
Answer:
Debriefing participants at the end, telling them the true aims and giving them the right to withhold their data (1); prior general consent or retrospective consent (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Peer review
Outline the role of peer review in the scientific process. [3 marks]
Answer:
Before publication, research is scrutinised by independent experts in the same field (1); to check its validity, originality and significance (1); it helps allocate research funding, prevents incorrect or fraudulent research being published, and can suggest amendments (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Implications for the economy
Explain one way psychological research has implications for the economy. [2 marks]
Answer:
Research on the role of the father shows both parents can be effective caregivers, so parents can share childcare and return to work flexibly (1); and effective treatments for mental illness, e.g. CBT, mean people can return to work, reducing absence costs (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Reliability
Explain how test-retest and inter-observer reliability are assessed. [3 marks]
Answer:
Test-retest: the same test is given to the same people on different occasions (1); inter-observer: two or more observers record the same behaviour independently (1); in both, the scores are correlated, and a correlation of +0.80 or above suggests good reliability (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Validity
Distinguish between face validity and concurrent validity. [2 marks]
Answer:
Face validity: whether a test appears to measure what it claims to, assessed by 'eyeballing' or by an expert (1); concurrent validity: whether results are close to those of a well-established test of the same thing, shown by a correlation above +0.80 (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Validity
Distinguish between ecological validity and temporal validity. [2 marks]
Answer:
Ecological validity: the extent to which findings can be generalised from one setting to others, especially everyday life (1); temporal validity: the extent to which findings can be generalised to other historical times (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Features of science
Outline the features of science: objectivity, replicability and falsifiability. [3 marks]
Answer:
Objectivity: researchers keep a critical distance and do not let personal opinions influence the data, e.g. using controlled methods (1); replicability: the extent to which procedures can be repeated to check findings are valid (1); falsifiability: Popper argued scientific theories must be capable of being proven false (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Features of science
Explain what Kuhn meant by a paradigm and a paradigm shift. [2 marks]
Answer:
A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline (1); a paradigm shift is when the dominant theory is overturned because of contradictory evidence (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.2.3.1 · Reporting investigations
Outline the abstract, method and discussion sections of a scientific report. [3 marks]
Answer:
Abstract: a short summary of the aims, hypotheses, method, results and conclusions (1); method: a detailed description of the design, sample, materials and procedure so the study can be replicated (1); discussion: a summary of the results in relation to background research, limitations and implications (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Types of data
Explain the difference between primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis. [3 marks]
Answer:
Primary data is original data collected specifically for the investigation by the researcher (1); secondary data has already been collected by someone else, e.g. government statistics (1); a meta-analysis combines the findings of many studies on a topic to produce an overall effect size (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Descriptive statistics
Calculate the mean, median and mode of these scores: 4, 6, 6, 7, 9, 10, 14. [3 marks]
Answer:
Mean: 56 ÷ 7 = 8 (1); median: 7 (1); mode: 6 (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Descriptive statistics
Explain why the standard deviation is a more informative measure of dispersion than the range. [2 marks]
Answer:
The range only uses the highest and lowest scores, so it is easily distorted by extreme values (1); the standard deviation takes all the scores into account, showing how much scores deviate from the mean (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Descriptive statistics
In a study, 18 out of 24 participants conformed. What percentage conformed? Show your working. [2 marks]
Answer:
18 ÷ 24 = 0.75 (1); 0.75 × 100 = 75% (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Distributions
Describe the relationship between the mean, median and mode in a positively skewed distribution. [2 marks]
Answer:
Most scores are bunched towards the left, with a long tail to the right (1); the mode is lowest, followed by the median, with the mean highest (pulled towards the tail) (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Correlation
What does a correlation coefficient of −0.85 show? [2 marks]
Answer:
A strong (1); negative correlation, where as one co-variable increases the other decreases (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.2.3.2 · Levels of measurement
Outline nominal, ordinal and interval levels of measurement. [3 marks]
Answer:
Nominal: data in separate categories, e.g. counting how many people choose each option (1); ordinal: data that are ordered, e.g. ratings on a scale, but intervals are not equal (1); interval: data measured on a scale with equal, precisely defined units, e.g. time or temperature (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.2.3.3 · Sign test
In a repeated measures study, 12 participants were tested. 9 improved, 2 got worse and 1 showed no change. Calculate S and state whether the result is significant if the critical value is 1. [3 marks]
Answer:
The participant with no change is removed, so N = 11 (1); S is the less frequent sign, so S = 2 (1); S must be equal to or less than the critical value to be significant, so 2 > 1 means the result is not significant (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.2.3.3 · Probability
Explain the difference between a Type I and a Type II error. [2 marks]
Answer:
Type I error: the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative accepted when the null is true, a false positive, more likely with a lenient significance level such as 10% (1); Type II error: the null hypothesis is accepted when the alternative is true, a false negative, more likely with a stringent level such as 1% (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.2.3.3 · Choosing a test
A researcher uses an independent groups design and collects ordinal data. Which statistical test should be used? Explain your choice. [3 marks]
Answer:
Mann-Whitney test (1); because it is a test of difference with an unrelated (independent groups) design (1); and the data are ordinal (1).

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