AQA A-level Psychology · 4.3.3

Gender

50 exam-style questions with answers for 4.3.3 Gender in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 4.3.3 · Sex and gender
Explain the difference between sex and gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Sex is a biological status as male or female, determined by chromosomes, hormones and anatomy (1); gender is the psychological and social sense of being male or female, influenced by culture and social norms (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.3.3 · Sex-role stereotypes
What are sex-role stereotypes? [2 marks]
Answer:
A set of shared expectations within a society about how males and females should behave (1); they are transmitted through culture and may lead to sexist assumptions, e.g. that women are more caring (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.3.3 · Androgyny
What is androgyny? [2 marks]
Answer:
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics (1); Bem (1974) argued high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.3.3 · Measuring androgyny
Outline the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). [3 marks]
Answer:
A questionnaire of 60 characteristics: 20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral (1); respondents rate themselves on a 7-point scale for each (1); scores classify people as masculine, feminine, androgynous (high on both) or undifferentiated (low on both) (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.3.3 · Measuring androgyny
Explain one strength of the BSRI. [2 marks]
Answer:
It was developed using 50 male and 50 female judges who rated 200 traits, so it has face validity (1); and a follow-up study found similar scores a month later, showing good test-retest reliability (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.3.3 · Measuring androgyny
Explain one limitation of the BSRI. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is over 40 years old and was developed in the US, so its stereotypes may lack temporal validity and be culturally biased (1); and it relies on self-report, so people may lack insight or give socially desirable answers (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.3.3 · Chromosomes
Explain the role of chromosomes in sex determination. [3 marks]
Answer:
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair determines biological sex (1); females have XX and males XY chromosomes (1); the Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which causes testes to develop, producing androgens (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Outline the role of testosterone in sex and gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Testosterone controls the development of male sex organs from around 8 weeks of foetal development (1); it has also been linked to aggressive behaviour (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Outline the role of oestrogen in sex and gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Oestrogen controls female sexual characteristics and menstruation (1); it causes emotional and behavioural changes around menstruation, e.g. premenstrual tension (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Outline the role of oxytocin in sex and gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Oxytocin stimulates lactation and makes women more interested in forming relationships (1); men produce it too, but in lower amounts, which some argue explains stereotypes such as women being more caring (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Outline the case of David Reimer as evidence for the role of biology in gender. [3 marks]
Answer:
David's penis was destroyed in a failed circumcision, and he was raised as a girl (Brenda) on the advice of Money (1); he was never happy as a girl and rejected the female identity (1); in his teens he reverted to being male, suggesting biological factors are important in gender identity (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Explain one limitation of the role of hormones in gender development. [2 marks]
Answer:
Tricker et al. (1996) found no differences in aggression between men given testosterone and a placebo (1); this suggests the link between hormones and gender behaviour is not straightforward (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.3.3 · Atypical chromosome patterns
Describe Klinefelter's syndrome. [3 marks]
Answer:
Affects males with an extra X chromosome (XXY) (1); physical characteristics include reduced body hair, breast development and long limbs (1); psychological characteristics include poor language skills, passive temperament and poor problem-solving (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.3.3 · Atypical chromosome patterns
Describe Turner's syndrome. [3 marks]
Answer:
Affects females with only one X chromosome (XO) (1); physical characteristics include no menstrual cycle, a webbed neck and short stature (1); psychological characteristics include higher than average reading ability but lower spatial and mathematical ability, and social immaturity (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.3.3 · Atypical chromosome patterns
Explain how research into atypical chromosome patterns contributes to the nature-nurture debate. [2 marks]
Answer:
Comparing people with atypical patterns to those with typical chromosomes suggests psychological differences may have a biological basis (1); but people with these syndromes may be treated differently by others, so nurture may also play a role (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.3.3 · Kohlberg's theory
Outline the three stages of Kohlberg's theory of gender development. [3 marks]
Answer:
Gender identity (around 2 years): the child correctly identifies themselves as a boy or girl (1); gender stability (around 4 years): the child realises they will always be the same gender, but may be confused by external changes (1); gender constancy (around 6 years): the child realises gender is consistent across situations and seeks out same-sex role models to imitate (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.3.3 · Kohlberg's theory
Explain one strength of Kohlberg's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Slaby and Frey (1975) found children high in gender constancy spent more time watching same-sex models in a film (1); this supports the idea that constancy leads children to seek out gender-appropriate behaviour (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.3.3 · Kohlberg's theory
Explain one limitation of Kohlberg's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Children show gender-typed behaviour long before gender constancy, e.g. Bussey and Bandura (1992) found 4-year-olds felt good about playing with gender-appropriate toys (1); so constancy is not needed for gender-typed behaviour (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender schema theory
Outline gender schema theory. [4 marks]
Answer:
Martin and Halverson (1981) proposed gender schemas develop from experience and guide gender behaviour (1); once a child develops gender identity around age 2–3, they search for information to form schemas (1); children focus on their in-group schemas, ignoring out-group ones (1); by about 8 they develop elaborate schemas about both genders, and schemas can lead to stereotypes and distorted memory (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender schema theory
Outline one study supporting gender schema theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Martin and Halverson (1983) found children aged 5–6 recalled pictures of people in schema-consistent activities better than schema-inconsistent ones (1); they often changed the sex of the person in inconsistent pictures, showing schemas distort memory (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender schema theory
Explain how gender schema theory differs from Kohlberg's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Gender schema theory suggests children search for gender-appropriate information once they have gender identity, around 2–3 years (1); whereas Kohlberg argued this only happens once they achieve gender constancy, around 6 years (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender schema theory
Explain one limitation of gender schema theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
It focuses too much on the individual child and does not fully consider social influences, e.g. parents and peers (1); and schemas may be hard to change, but they do not explain why children's behaviour does not always match them (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Outline the Oedipus complex. [4 marks]
Answer:
In the phallic stage, a boy develops incestuous feelings towards his mother (1); and a murderous hatred for his father, who is a rival for her love (1); he fears his father will castrate him (castration anxiety) (1); to resolve this, he identifies with his father and internalises his gender role (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Outline the Electra complex. [3 marks]
Answer:
In the phallic stage, a girl desires her father and sees her mother as a rival (1); she experiences penis envy and blames her mother for her 'castrated' state (1); she resolves this by identifying with her mother, internalising her gender role, and substituting penis envy with the desire for a baby (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Explain the difference between identification and internalisation in Freud's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Identification: the child adopts the attitudes and behaviour of the same-sex parent (1); internalisation: the child takes on the gender identity of the same-sex parent as their own (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Outline the case of Little Hans as evidence for Freud's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Little Hans had a phobia of horses, which Freud argued represented a fear of his father (1); this was resolved when he fantasised about being a father, suggesting identification (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Explain one limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Concepts such as the Oedipus complex are unconscious and unfalsifiable (1); and children in single-parent or same-sex families develop normal gender identity, which the theory cannot explain (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.3.3 · Social learning theory
Explain how social learning theory explains gender development. [4 marks]
Answer:
Children observe gender behaviour in role models such as parents and peers (1); direct reinforcement: gender-appropriate behaviour is rewarded, e.g. praising a girl for being caring (1); vicarious reinforcement: seeing a same-sex model rewarded makes imitation more likely (1); identification with similar models and mediational processes such as attention and retention also influence gender behaviour (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.3.3 · Social learning theory
Explain one strength of social learning theory as an explanation of gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Smith and Lloyd (1978) found babies dressed as boys were given hammers and encouraged to be active, while those dressed as girls were given dolls and praised for being 'pretty' (1); this supports differential reinforcement of gender behaviour (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.3.3 · Social learning theory
Explain one limitation of social learning theory as an explanation of gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
It does not explain how gender understanding develops with age, e.g. children of all ages should be equally affected by reinforcement (1); cognitive theories show this understanding changes with age, so SLT is incomplete (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.3.3 · Culture
Explain the influence of culture on gender roles. [3 marks]
Answer:
Mead (1935) studied three tribes in Papua New Guinea (1); among the Arapesh both sexes were gentle, while among the Mundugumor both were aggressive (1); among the Tchambuli women were dominant and men dependent, suggesting gender roles are culturally determined (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.3.3 · Culture
Explain one limitation of Mead's research into culture and gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
Mead was accused of imposing her own views, and Freeman (1983) argued her findings were flawed (1); this suggests observer bias, so her findings may not show cultural relativism of gender (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.3.3 · Media
Explain the influence of the media on gender roles. [3 marks]
Answer:
The media provide role models that children can imitate (1); Bussey and Bandura (1999) found men are typically shown as independent and ambitious, while women are dependent and emotional (1); Williams (1986) found children's gender views became more stereotyped after television was introduced in a Canadian town (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.3.3 · Media
Explain one limitation of research into media influences on gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is difficult to separate media influences from other social influences such as parents and peers (1); research is correlational, so it cannot show the media cause gender stereotypes (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
What is gender dysphoria? [2 marks]
Answer:
A condition where a person experiences discomfort because their biological sex does not match their gender identity (1); some people may choose to transition to their preferred gender (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
Outline one biological explanation for gender dysphoria. [2 marks]
Answer:
The brain-sex theory: the BSTc, a region of the brain that is sexually dimorphic, may have developed differently (1); Zhou et al. (1995) found trans women had a BSTc similar in size to biological females (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
Outline one social explanation for gender dysphoria. [2 marks]
Answer:
Psychodynamic explanations suggest early childhood experiences and relationships with parents are important (1); Ovesey and Person (1973) proposed trans women experience extreme separation anxiety and fantasise about fusion with the mother (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
Explain one limitation of the brain-sex theory of gender dysphoria. [2 marks]
Answer:
Chung et al. (2002) found the BSTc does not differ in size until adulthood, but gender dysphoria often appears in early childhood (1); so the difference may be an effect rather than a cause (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
Explain one limitation of social explanations for gender dysphoria. [2 marks]
Answer:
The psychodynamic explanation is hard to test, as it relies on unconscious processes (1); and Rekers (1995) found many boys with gender dysphoria had no absent fathers or separation issues, so it lacks support (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender dysphoria
Explain why research into gender dysphoria may be socially sensitive. [2 marks]
Answer:
Explanations may be used to suggest gender dysphoria is something to be 'cured' (1); and biological explanations may affect how people are viewed and the treatment they receive, e.g. access to transition (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.3.3 · Sex and gender
Explain the difference between gender identity and gender role. [2 marks]
Answer:
Gender identity is a person's internal sense of their own gender (1); gender role refers to behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate for males or females in a culture (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.3.3 · Androgyny
Explain why androgynous people may have better mental health, according to Bem. [2 marks]
Answer:
They can adapt their behaviour to different situations, being assertive or nurturing as required (1); so they cope better with a range of situations (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.3.3 · Kohlberg's theory
Give one piece of research support for the gender stability stage. [2 marks]
Answer:
Kohlberg found children at the stability stage were confused by changes in appearance or activity (1); e.g. Damon (1977) told children stories about a boy who liked playing with dolls; 4-year-olds said this was fine, but older children said it was wrong (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.3.3 · Gender schema theory
Explain what is meant by in-group and out-group schemas. [2 marks]
Answer:
In-group schemas relate to the child's own gender, and they focus on these to learn appropriate behaviour (1); out-group schemas relate to the other gender, and are largely ignored until about 8 years old (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.3.3 · Hormones
Explain how research into oxytocin supports a biological explanation of gender differences. [2 marks]
Answer:
Women produce more oxytocin, which is linked to bonding and caring (1); this could explain why women are often seen as more nurturing, suggesting gender differences have a biological basis (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.3.3 · Psychodynamic explanation
Explain why Freud's theory of gender may be alpha biased. [2 marks]
Answer:
Freud claimed women have a weaker superego because they do not experience castration anxiety (1); this exaggerates differences between males and females and portrays women as morally inferior (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.3.3 · Social learning theory
Explain how the media might act as a source of vicarious reinforcement for gender roles. [2 marks]
Answer:
Children see characters in TV shows and adverts being rewarded for gender-stereotyped behaviour (1); this increases the likelihood that children will imitate the behaviour (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.3.3 · Atypical chromosome patterns
Explain one limitation of using research into atypical chromosome patterns to explain gender. [2 marks]
Answer:
The samples are small and may not be representative of the wider population (1); and people with atypical patterns may differ for other reasons, e.g. the social effects of being treated differently, so it is hard to establish cause and effect (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.3.3 · Culture
Explain how cross-cultural research suggests gender roles are partly biological. [2 marks]
Answer:
Buss (1989) found similar mate preferences in men and women across 33 countries (1); universal patterns suggest some gender differences are innate rather than cultural (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.3.3 · Kohlberg's theory
Explain why children at the gender stability stage may be confused by a man with long hair. [2 marks]
Answer:
At this stage, children understand gender is stable over time but not across situations (1); they rely on outward appearance, so they may think a man with long hair has become a woman (1).

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