AQA A-level Psychology · 4.2.1

Approaches in Psychology

Exam-style questions with answers for 4.2.1 Approaches in Psychology in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

All questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 4.2.1 · Origins of Psychology
Outline Wundt's contribution to the emergence of Psychology as a science. [3 marks]
Answer:
Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879 (1); he aimed to study the mind scientifically using standardised, controlled procedures (1); this separated psychology from philosophy, and his approach became known as structuralism (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.2.1 · Origins of Psychology
What is introspection? [2 marks]
Answer:
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking conscious awareness into basic structures (1); trained participants reported their own thoughts, images and sensations in response to a stimulus such as a ticking metronome (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.2.1 · Origins of Psychology
Explain one limitation of introspection as a scientific method. [2 marks]
Answer:
It relies on participants' subjective self-reports of private mental processes (1); these cannot be observed or verified by others, so results are not objective or reliably replicable (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.2.1 · Origins of Psychology
Explain how Psychology developed as a science after Wundt. [2 marks]
Answer:
Early behaviourists rejected introspection and studied only observable behaviour in controlled lab experiments (1); later cognitive psychologists used experiments to make inferences about mental processes, so modern psychology uses the scientific method (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.2.1 · Behaviourist approach
Outline the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach. [3 marks]
Answer:
Only observable behaviour that can be objectively measured should be studied (1); all behaviour is learned through experience, as we are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) (1); the basic processes of learning are the same in humans and animals, so animals can be used in lab experiments (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.2.1 · Classical conditioning
Outline Pavlov's research into classical conditioning. [4 marks]
Answer:
Dogs were conditioned to salivate when a bell rang (1); food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR) naturally (1); the bell (NS) was repeatedly presented with food until the bell alone (CS) produced salivation (CR) (1); this showed a neutral stimulus can come to produce a new learned response through association (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.2.1 · Operant conditioning
Outline Skinner's research into operant conditioning. [3 marks]
Answer:
Rats and pigeons were placed in specially designed cages (Skinner boxes) (1); when a rat activated a lever it was rewarded with a food pellet, so lever-pressing increased (1); in other conditions pressing the lever avoided an electric shock, so the behaviour was also repeated (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.2.1 · Operant conditioning
Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement. [2 marks]
Answer:
Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed, e.g. praise for finishing homework (1); negative reinforcement: performing a behaviour that removes or avoids something unpleasant, e.g. doing homework to avoid a reprimand (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.2.1 · Operant conditioning
Define punishment in operant conditioning. [1 mark]
Answer:
An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour, which makes the behaviour less likely to be repeated.
Question 10 · Spec 4.2.1 · Behaviourist approach
Explain one strength of the behaviourist approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It uses well-controlled lab experiments that focus on observable, measurable behaviour (1); this made psychology more scientific and objective, and replicable (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.2.1 · Behaviourist approach
Explain one limitation of the behaviourist approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is environmentally deterministic: behaviour is seen as a result of past reinforcement, ignoring free will (1); and it ignores mental events during learning, so it is a mechanistic view of behaviour (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.2.1 · Behaviourist approach
Explain one real-world application of the behaviourist approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems used in prisons and psychiatric wards (1); classical conditioning is used in treating phobias, e.g. systematic desensitisation (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Outline the basic assumptions of social learning theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Bandura agreed with behaviourists that behaviour is learned through experience, but argued learning can be indirect, through observation and imitation (1); learning also involves mediational (cognitive) processes between stimulus and response (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Explain what is meant by vicarious reinforcement. [2 marks]
Answer:
Learning through observing the consequences of another person's behaviour (1); if a model's behaviour is rewarded, the observer is more likely to imitate it (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Name and outline the four mediational processes in social learning theory. [4 marks]
Answer:
Attention: the extent to which we notice a behaviour (1); retention: how well the behaviour is remembered (1); motor reproduction: the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour (1); motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, often determined by whether it was rewarded or punished (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Explain the difference between identification and imitation in social learning theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Identification: an observer is influenced by a model because they are similar to or have a desirable status, e.g. same gender or celebrity (1); imitation: the observer copies the model's behaviour (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Outline Bandura et al.'s (1961) Bobo doll study. [4 marks]
Answer:
Children watched an adult model behave aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll (1); the aggressive model hit it with a mallet and shouted at it (1); the children were then frustrated and observed playing with toys including a Bobo doll (1); those who saw the aggressive model were much more aggressive towards the doll (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Explain one strength of social learning theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
It recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning, unlike classical and operant conditioning (1); so it provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.2.1 · Social learning theory
Explain one limitation of social learning theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
It relies too heavily on evidence from lab studies such as the Bobo doll study, which have low ecological validity (1); children may have behaved aggressively because they knew the doll was meant to be hit (demand characteristics) (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive approach
Outline the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach. [3 marks]
Answer:
Internal mental processes such as memory, perception and thinking can and should be studied scientifically (1); because they are 'private', cognitive psychologists make inferences about them from behaviour (1); the mind is compared to a computer that processes information (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive approach
Explain what is meant by a schema. [2 marks]
Answer:
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influences cognitive processing, developed from experience (1); schemas allow us to process lots of information quickly but can lead to distorted interpretations, e.g. stereotypes (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive approach
Explain the role of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach. [3 marks]
Answer:
Theoretical models are simplified, often pictorial representations based on research, e.g. the multi-store model of memory (1); computer models compare the mind to a computer with inputs, processing and outputs (1); these models have been used in developing artificial intelligence (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive neuroscience
What is cognitive neuroscience? [2 marks]
Answer:
The scientific study of how biological structures in the brain influence mental processes (1); using brain scanning techniques such as fMRI and PET to identify which areas are involved in particular cognitive functions (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive approach
Explain one strength of the cognitive approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It uses scientific, objective methods, e.g. lab experiments and brain imaging (1); and it has real-world application, e.g. CBT for depression and cognitive interviews (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.2.1 · Cognitive approach
Explain one limitation of the cognitive approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It relies on machine reductionism, ignoring the influence of emotion and motivation (1); and inferences about mental processes are made from artificial lab tasks, so the approach may lack external validity (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Outline the basic assumptions of the biological approach. [3 marks]
Answer:
Everything psychological is at first biological (1); behaviour is influenced by genes, biological structures such as the brain, and neurochemistry such as neurotransmitters (1); behaviour can be studied scientifically, e.g. using brain scans and twin studies (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. [2 marks]
Answer:
Genotype is a person's actual genetic make-up (1); phenotype is the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics, influenced by the environment (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Outline how twin studies are used to study the genetic basis of behaviour. [3 marks]
Answer:
Concordance rates are compared for MZ (identical) twins, who share 100% of genes, and DZ (non-identical) twins, who share about 50% (1); if MZ concordance is higher, this suggests a genetic basis (1); e.g. for OCD or schizophrenia (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Outline the role of evolution in the biological approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
Genetically determined behaviours that increase survival and reproduction are naturally selected (1); they are passed on to future generations, e.g. attachment behaviours ensure infants are protected (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Explain one strength of the biological approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It uses scientific methods such as fMRI, EEG and drug trials, which are objective and reliable (1); and it has real-world application, e.g. drug treatments like SSRIs for depression and OCD (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.2.1 · Biological approach
Explain one limitation of the biological approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is biologically deterministic, suggesting behaviour is governed by internal causes we cannot control (1); this has implications for the legal system, e.g. offenders may not be held responsible for their actions (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychodynamic approach
Outline the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach. [3 marks]
Answer:
Freud proposed the mind is mostly unconscious, the vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts (1); it contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed (1); these unconscious processes influence our behaviour and personality, and can emerge through dreams or slips of the tongue (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychodynamic approach
Outline the structure of personality according to Freud. [3 marks]
Answer:
Id: the primitive part present at birth, operating on the pleasure principle and demanding instant gratification (1); Ego: develops around age 2, works on the reality principle and mediates between the Id and Superego (1); Superego: forms at the end of the phallic stage, around age 5, our internalised sense of right and wrong, operating on the morality principle (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.2.1 · Defence mechanisms
Outline three defence mechanisms. [3 marks]
Answer:
Repression: forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind (1); denial: refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality (1); displacement: transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychosexual stages
Name the five psychosexual stages in order. [3 marks]
Answer:
Oral (0–1 year) and anal (1–3 years) (1); phallic (3–6 years) (1); latency and genital (puberty) (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychosexual stages
Outline the phallic stage and its associated conflict. [2 marks]
Answer:
Age 3–6, focus of pleasure on the genital area (1); boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls the Electra complex, resolved through identification with the same-sex parent (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychodynamic approach
Explain one strength of the psychodynamic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It has explanatory power and drew attention to the influence of childhood on later development (1); it introduced psychoanalysis, the first 'talking cure', which paved the way for modern therapies (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.2.1 · Psychodynamic approach
Explain one limitation of the psychodynamic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
Many of Freud's concepts, such as the Id and Oedipus complex, occur at an unconscious level and cannot be tested (1); Popper argued it is unfalsifiable and so does not meet the scientific criterion (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Outline the basic assumptions of humanistic Psychology. [3 marks]
Answer:
Humans have free will and are active agents who determine their own development (1); each person is unique, so psychology should study subjective experience (person-centred) (1); everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential (self-actualisation) (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Outline Maslow's hierarchy of needs. [3 marks]
Answer:
A pyramid of five levels of needs, with deficiency needs at the bottom (1); physiological, safety and security, love and belongingness, and self-esteem (1); lower needs must be met before a person can work towards self-actualisation at the top (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Explain what Rogers meant by congruence. [2 marks]
Answer:
Congruence is when the self-concept matches the ideal self (1); a large gap between the two (incongruence) causes a negative state and low self-esteem (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Explain the role of conditions of worth. [2 marks]
Answer:
Conditions that a person believes they must meet to be loved, often imposed by parents (1); e.g. 'I will only love you if you are successful', which can lead to incongruence in later life (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Explain the influence of humanistic Psychology on counselling. [2 marks]
Answer:
Rogers developed client-centred therapy, where the therapist provides unconditional positive regard, genuineness and empathy (1); this aims to reduce incongruence and increase self-worth, and is widely used in counselling (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.2.1 · Humanistic Psychology
Explain one limitation of humanistic Psychology. [2 marks]
Answer:
Concepts such as self-actualisation and congruence are vague and hard to test experimentally (1); and it may be culturally biased, as ideas like personal growth reflect individualist values (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Compare the behaviourist and psychodynamic approaches in terms of determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
The behaviourist approach suggests behaviour is environmentally determined by past reinforcement (1); the psychodynamic approach suggests psychic determinism, where behaviour is determined by unconscious forces (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Which approach is most consistent with the idea of free will? Explain your answer. [2 marks]
Answer:
Humanistic Psychology (1); because it assumes people actively choose their own behaviour and development and are not determined by external or internal forces (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Compare the biological and behaviourist approaches on the nature-nurture debate. [2 marks]
Answer:
The biological approach emphasises nature: behaviour is influenced by genes and neurochemistry (1); the behaviourist approach emphasises nurture: all behaviour is learned from the environment (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Compare the behaviourist and humanistic approaches in terms of reductionism. [2 marks]
Answer:
The behaviourist approach is reductionist, breaking behaviour into stimulus-response units (1); humanistic Psychology is holistic, arguing behaviour should be understood as the whole person in context (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Explain how the biological and cognitive approaches have come together. [2 marks]
Answer:
Cognitive neuroscience combines the study of mental processes with brain structures (1); e.g. brain scans showing areas of the prefrontal cortex used in different types of memory (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.2.1 · Comparison of approaches
Explain how social learning theory acts as a bridge between the behaviourist and cognitive approaches. [2 marks]
Answer:
Like behaviourism, it says behaviour is learned from the environment through reinforcement (1); like the cognitive approach, it recognises mediational processes such as attention and memory (1).

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