AQA A-level Psychology · 4.1.2

Memory

50 exam-style questions with answers for 4.1.2 Memory in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model
Outline the multi-store model of memory. [4 marks]
Answer:
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed memory is made of three separate stores (1); information from the senses enters the sensory register and passes to STM if attention is paid to it (1); information in STM is lost unless rehearsed, and maintenance rehearsal transfers it to LTM (1); information is retrieved from LTM back to STM when needed (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model
State the coding, capacity and duration of the sensory register. [3 marks]
Answer:
Coding: modality-specific, depending on the sense, e.g. iconic (visual), echoic (auditory) (1); capacity: very large (1); duration: very brief, less than half a second (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model
State the coding, capacity and duration of short-term memory. [3 marks]
Answer:
Coding: mainly acoustic (1); capacity: limited, about 7 ± 2 items (1); duration: about 18 to 30 seconds without rehearsal (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model
State the coding, capacity and duration of long-term memory. [3 marks]
Answer:
Coding: mainly semantic (1); capacity: potentially unlimited (1); duration: potentially a lifetime (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.1.2 · Coding
Outline Baddeley's (1966) research into coding in STM and LTM. [3 marks]
Answer:
Participants learned lists of words that were acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar or semantically dissimilar (1); when recalling immediately (STM), they did worst with acoustically similar words (1); when recalling after 20 minutes (LTM), they did worst with semantically similar words, so STM is acoustic and LTM semantic (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.1.2 · Capacity
Outline Jacobs' (1887) research into the capacity of STM. [3 marks]
Answer:
He used a digit span technique: the researcher read out digits or letters and the participant repeated them in order (1); the number of items increased until the participant could not recall the sequence correctly (1); mean span was 9.3 digits and 7.3 letters (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.1.2 · Capacity
Explain how Miller's (1956) research suggests the capacity of STM can be increased. [2 marks]
Answer:
Miller found people can hold about 7 ± 2 items in STM (1); but this can be increased by chunking, grouping items into larger meaningful units (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.1.2 · Duration
Outline Peterson and Peterson's (1959) research into the duration of STM. [3 marks]
Answer:
24 students were given consonant syllables (trigrams) to recall after intervals of 3 to 18 seconds (1); they counted backwards in threes during the interval to prevent rehearsal (1); about 90% were recalled after 3 seconds but under 10% after 18 seconds (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.1.2 · Duration
Explain one limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study of STM duration. [2 marks]
Answer:
Recalling consonant syllables is artificial and does not reflect everyday memory tasks (1); so the study lacks mundane realism and findings may not generalise (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.1.2 · Duration
Outline Bahrick et al.'s (1975) research into the duration of LTM. [3 marks]
Answer:
392 American adults aged 17 to 74 were tested on memory of their high school classmates (1); using a photo-recognition test and a free-recall test of names (1); those tested within 15 years were about 90% accurate in photo recognition, and about 70% after 48 years (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model evaluation
Explain one strength of the multi-store model. [2 marks]
Answer:
There is research support showing STM and LTM are different, e.g. Baddeley (1966) found they use different coding (1); this supports the model's view that they are separate stores (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model evaluation
Explain how case studies of amnesia have been used to support the multi-store model. [2 marks]
Answer:
HM and Clive Wearing had damaged hippocampi and could not form new long-term memories (1); but their STM still worked, which supports STM and LTM being separate stores (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model evaluation
Explain one limitation of the multi-store model's view of STM. [2 marks]
Answer:
Shallice and Warrington (1970) found patient KF had poor STM for auditory information but could process visual information normally (1); this suggests there is more than one short-term store, contradicting the model's single unitary STM (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.1.2 · Multi-store model evaluation
Explain why the multi-store model's view of rehearsal has been criticised. [2 marks]
Answer:
Craik and Watkins (1973) found the type of rehearsal matters, not the amount (1); elaborative rehearsal, linking information to existing knowledge, is needed for long-term storage, not just maintenance rehearsal (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Outline episodic memory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Memory of personal events or experiences in our lives, like a diary (1); they are time-stamped, include details such as people and places, and need conscious effort to recall (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Outline semantic memory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Memory of our shared knowledge of the world, facts and meanings of words, like an encyclopedia (1); not time-stamped and less personal than episodic memory (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Outline procedural memory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Memory of actions or skills, such as riding a bike (1); recalled without conscious awareness or effort, so it is hard to explain in words (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Classify each memory as episodic, semantic or procedural: (a) knowing Paris is the capital of France; (b) remembering your tenth birthday party; (c) tying your shoelaces. [3 marks]
Answer:
(a) semantic (1); (b) episodic (1); (c) procedural (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Explain how brain scan evidence supports different types of LTM. [2 marks]
Answer:
Tulving et al. (1994) found different brain areas active for different memories (1); episodic and semantic memories were linked to the prefrontal cortex, with semantic in the left and episodic in the right, suggesting a physical basis for separate types (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.1.2 · Types of LTM
Explain one strength of research into types of LTM using case studies. [2 marks]
Answer:
Clive Wearing's episodic memory was severely damaged but he could still play the piano (procedural) and knew the meaning of words (semantic) (1); this shows the types are stored separately, as damage to one does not affect the others (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Outline the role of the central executive in the working memory model. [2 marks]
Answer:
It directs attention to particular tasks and allocates the slave systems' limited resources (1); it has very limited capacity and does not store information (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Outline the phonological loop. [3 marks]
Answer:
It is a slave system that deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which it arrives (1); it has a phonological store, which holds the words you hear (1); and an articulatory process, which allows maintenance rehearsal of sounds, with a capacity of about two seconds' worth of speech (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Outline the visuo-spatial sketchpad. [3 marks]
Answer:
A slave system that stores visual and/or spatial information when required (1); it has limited capacity, about three or four objects (1); Logie (1995) divided it into the visual cache (stores visual data) and the inner scribe (records arrangement of objects) (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Outline the role of the episodic buffer. [2 marks]
Answer:
Added by Baddeley in 2000 as a temporary store that integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from the other components (1); it maintains a sense of time sequencing and links working memory to LTM (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
State the coding and capacity of the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. [2 marks]
Answer:
Phonological loop: acoustic coding, about two seconds of speech (1); visuo-spatial sketchpad: visual/spatial coding, about three or four objects (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Explain how dual task studies support the working memory model. [3 marks]
Answer:
Baddeley et al. (1975) found participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks together than a visual and a verbal task together (1); this is because both visual tasks compete for the visuo-spatial sketchpad (1); this supports the existence of separate slave systems with limited capacity (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Explain one limitation of the working memory model. [2 marks]
Answer:
There is little clear evidence for how the central executive works or what it does (1); so it may be too vague and may actually have more than one component (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
Explain how the case of KF supports the working memory model. [2 marks]
Answer:
KF had poor STM for auditory information but normal processing of visual information after brain damage (1); this suggests the phonological loop was damaged while the visuo-spatial sketchpad was intact, supporting separate components (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.1.2 · Working memory model
A student can listen to music while drawing but struggles to listen to a podcast while writing an essay. Use the working memory model to explain this. [3 marks]
Answer:
Listening to music uses the phonological loop and drawing uses the visuo-spatial sketchpad, so the tasks do not compete (1); listening to the podcast and writing the essay both use the phonological loop (1); its limited capacity is exceeded, so performance on one or both tasks suffers (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.1.2 · Interference
Define proactive interference. [2 marks]
Answer:
Forgetting occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories (1); e.g. a teacher learning a new class's names may call students by names from last year's class (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.1.2 · Interference
Define retroactive interference. [2 marks]
Answer:
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories (1); e.g. after learning a new phone number you cannot remember your old one (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.1.2 · Interference
Outline McGeoch and McDonald's (1931) research into interference. [3 marks]
Answer:
Participants learned a list of ten words until they could recall them perfectly, then learned a second list (1); the second list varied in similarity, e.g. synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words or nonsense syllables (1); recall of the first list was worst when the second list was synonyms, showing interference is strongest when memories are similar (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.1.2 · Interference
Explain one strength of interference as an explanation of forgetting, using real-world research. [2 marks]
Answer:
Baddeley and Hitch (1977) found rugby players who had played more games since the match in question forgot more team names, regardless of time passed (1); this shows interference operates in real-life situations, increasing external validity (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.1.2 · Interference
Explain one limitation of interference as an explanation of forgetting. [2 marks]
Answer:
Most studies use artificial tasks like word lists learned close together (1); in everyday life interference may be less common, so it may explain only a small proportion of forgetting (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.1.2 · Retrieval failure
Outline retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting. [3 marks]
Answer:
Forgetting occurs because the cues present when the memory was encoded are absent at recall (1); Tulving's encoding specificity principle states cues help most if present at both encoding and retrieval (1); cues can be meaningful, or can be context (external environment) or state (internal mood/physical state) (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.1.2 · Retrieval failure
Outline Godden and Baddeley's (1975) study of context-dependent forgetting. [3 marks]
Answer:
Deep-sea divers learned and recalled word lists either on land or underwater, in four conditions (1); in two conditions the contexts matched and in two they did not (1); recall was about 40% lower when learning and recall contexts did not match (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.1.2 · Retrieval failure
Outline Carter and Cassaday's (1998) study of state-dependent forgetting. [3 marks]
Answer:
Participants were given antihistamines, which made them mildly drowsy (1); they learned and recalled word lists in matching or mismatching internal states (1); recall was significantly worse when the internal state at learning and recall did not match (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.1.2 · Retrieval failure
Explain one limitation of the context effects found in retrieval failure research. [2 marks]
Answer:
Baddeley argued context effects are weak in real life, as learning and recall environments rarely differ as much as land and underwater (1); and context effects were only found for recall, not recognition, so the explanation is limited (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.1.2 · Retrieval failure
Explain one practical application of research into retrieval failure. [2 marks]
Answer:
Students can improve exam performance by revising in conditions similar to the exam room or by mentally picturing the learning context (1); this is also used in the cognitive interview, where witnesses reinstate the context of the crime (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.1.2 · Misleading information
Outline Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study of leading questions. [4 marks]
Answer:
45 students watched film clips of car accidents (1); they were asked 'About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?' (1); the verb was varied: smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted (1); mean estimated speed was 40.5 mph for 'smashed' and 31.8 mph for 'contacted' (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.1.2 · Misleading information
Outline two explanations for why leading questions affect eyewitness testimony. [2 marks]
Answer:
Response-bias explanation: the wording of the question does not change the memory, only the answer given (1); substitution explanation: the wording actually changes the memory of the event (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.1.2 · Misleading information
Explain how post-event discussion affects eyewitness testimony. [3 marks]
Answer:
When witnesses discuss an event, their memories may become contaminated as they combine misinformation from others (1); Gabbert et al. (2003) found 71% of pairs of participants who watched different videos and discussed them recalled information they had not actually seen (1); memory conformity may also occur, where witnesses go along with others to win approval (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.1.2 · Misleading information
Explain one limitation of research into misleading information. [2 marks]
Answer:
Lab studies use film clips, which lack the stress and emotional impact of real crimes (1); Foster et al. (1994) found witnesses were more accurate when they believed a real robbery's outcome mattered, so lab findings may exaggerate inaccuracy (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.1.2 · Anxiety
Outline research showing anxiety has a negative effect on eyewitness accuracy. [3 marks]
Answer:
Johnson and Scott (1976) had participants overhear an argument then see a man leave holding a pen or a bloody knife (1); 49% identified the man with the pen but only 33% the man with the knife (1); this is weapon focus: attention narrows onto the weapon, reducing recall of the face (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.1.2 · Anxiety
Outline research showing anxiety has a positive effect on eyewitness accuracy. [3 marks]
Answer:
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) studied 13 witnesses to a real shooting in Canada (1); they were interviewed 4 to 5 months later and were still very accurate (1); those who reported the highest stress were the most accurate, about 88% compared with 75% for low stress (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.1.2 · Anxiety
Explain how the Yerkes–Dodson law can explain contradictory findings about anxiety and eyewitness testimony. [3 marks]
Answer:
The law proposes an inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance (1); low to moderate anxiety improves recall accuracy (1); beyond an optimal level very high anxiety reduces accuracy, so studies may simply involve different anxiety levels (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.1.2 · Cognitive interview
Outline the four main techniques of the cognitive interview. [4 marks]
Answer:
Report everything: include every detail, even if it seems irrelevant (1); reinstate the context: mentally return to the original scene, including emotions and weather (1); reverse the order: recall events in a different chronological order (1); change perspective: recall the event from another person's point of view (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.1.2 · Cognitive interview
Explain one strength of the cognitive interview. [2 marks]
Answer:
A meta-analysis by Köhnken et al. (1999) found it gave a large increase in accurate information compared with a standard police interview (1); this shows real practical benefits for police investigations (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.1.2 · Cognitive interview
Explain one limitation of the cognitive interview. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is time-consuming and requires special training, so police may use only some techniques (1); Köhnken et al. also found an increase in inaccurate information, so it must be treated with caution (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.1.2 · Cognitive interview
Explain what is meant by the enhanced cognitive interview. [2 marks]
Answer:
Fisher et al. (1987) added extra elements focused on social dynamics (1); e.g. establishing eye contact, reducing the witness's anxiety, minimising distractions, and asking open-ended questions (1).

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