AQA A-level Psychology · 4.3.9

Forensic Psychology

Exam-style questions with answers for 4.3.9 Forensic Psychology in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

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Question 1 · Spec 4.3.9 · Offender profiling
What is offender profiling? [2 marks]
Answer:
An investigative tool used by the police to narrow down a list of likely suspects (1); it involves analysing the crime scene and evidence to infer characteristics of the offender (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.3.9 · Top-down approach
Outline the top-down approach to offender profiling. [3 marks]
Answer:
Developed by the FBI in the 1970s, based on interviews with 36 sexually motivated murderers (1); offenders are classified as organised or disorganised based on crime scene evidence (1); the profiler matches the evidence to a pre-existing template to predict the offender's characteristics (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.3.9 · Organised and disorganised types
Describe organised and disorganised types of offender. [4 marks]
Answer:
Organised: evidence of planning, the victim is deliberately targeted (1); organised offenders tend to have above-average intelligence and be in skilled jobs, socially and sexually competent (1); disorganised: little evidence of planning, the crime is spontaneous and the scene is chaotic (1); disorganised offenders tend to have lower intelligence, be in unskilled work and live alone, often near the crime (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.3.9 · Top-down approach
Outline the four stages of constructing an FBI profile. [4 marks]
Answer:
Data assimilation: reviewing evidence, e.g. crime scene photos and pathology reports (1); crime scene classification: organised or disorganised (1); crime reconstruction: hypotheses about the sequence of events and the victim's behaviour (1); profile generation: hypotheses about the likely offender, e.g. demographics and habits (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.3.9 · Top-down approach
Explain one limitation of the top-down approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It only applies to certain crimes, e.g. murder and rape, not burglary or theft (1); and the organised/disorganised distinction is too simplistic, as Canter et al. (2004) found most offenders show features of both (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.3.9 · Top-down approach
Explain one strength of the top-down approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
Canter et al. (2004) found some evidence for a distinct organised type in 100 US murders (1); so the classification may have some validity, at least for organised offenders (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.3.9 · Bottom-up approach
Outline the bottom-up approach to offender profiling. [3 marks]
Answer:
Developed in the UK, it is data-driven rather than based on fixed types (1); profilers work up from the evidence to generate hypotheses about the offender (1); it uses statistical analysis of databases of crimes, e.g. investigative psychology and geographical profiling (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.3.9 · Investigative Psychology
Outline investigative Psychology. [3 marks]
Answer:
Psychological theory is applied to a database of crimes to identify statistical patterns (1); interpersonal coherence: the way an offender interacts with victims may reflect their everyday behaviour (1); time and place, and forensic awareness, can also indicate characteristics of the offender (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.3.9 · Geographical profiling
Outline geographical profiling. [3 marks]
Answer:
Crime mapping uses the locations of linked crimes to infer where the offender lives (1); Canter's circle theory: marauders commit crimes close to home, while commuters travel away from home (1); offenders work in a 'comfort zone', so crimes form a circle around their base (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.3.9 · Bottom-up approach
Explain one strength of the bottom-up approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is more objective and scientific than the top-down approach, as it is based on statistical data (1); and it can be applied to a wider range of crimes, e.g. burglary (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.3.9 · Bottom-up approach
Explain one limitation of the bottom-up approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
Geographical profiling relies on accurate police data, and many crimes are not reported or recorded (1); and Copson (1995) found profiles only led to the identification of the offender in 3% of cases (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.3.9 · Atavistic form
Outline Lombroso's atavistic form explanation of offending. [3 marks]
Answer:
Lombroso (1876) proposed offenders are genetic throwbacks to a primitive subspecies (1); they cannot adjust to civilised society, so turn to crime (1); they can be identified by facial and cranial features, e.g. a heavy brow, strong jaw and high cheekbones (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.3.9 · Atavistic form
Outline Lombroso's research into the atavistic form. [2 marks]
Answer:
He examined the facial and cranial features of 383 dead and 3839 living convicts (1); he concluded that 40% of crimes could be explained by atavistic characteristics (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.3.9 · Atavistic form
Explain one limitation of the atavistic form explanation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Lombroso did not compare criminals with a control group of non-criminals (1); and Goring (1913) compared 3000 offenders with non-offenders and found no evidence of a distinct criminal type (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.3.9 · Atavistic form
Explain why Lombroso's theory is socially sensitive. [2 marks]
Answer:
Many of the features he described were typical of people of African descent (1); so his theory could be used to support racist views (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.3.9 · Genetic explanation
Outline the genetic explanation of offending behaviour. [3 marks]
Answer:
Offenders may inherit a gene or combination of genes that predispose them to crime (1); Lange (1930) found 10 of 13 MZ twins and 2 of 17 DZ twins had a co-twin who had also been in prison (1); candidate genes include MAOA and CDH13, and the diathesis-stress model suggests genes must interact with the environment (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.3.9 · Genetic explanation
Outline one study of candidate genes for offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
Tiihonen et al. (2014) analysed the genes of 900 offenders in Finland (1); they found the MAOA and CDH13 genes were linked to violent crime (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.3.9 · Genetic explanation
Explain one limitation of the genetic explanation of offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
Twin studies cannot separate genes and environment, as MZ twins may share more similar environments (1); and Mednick et al. (1984) adoption study found genes only partly explained crime, so environment also matters (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.3.9 · Neural explanation
Outline the neural explanation of offending behaviour. [3 marks]
Answer:
Offenders may have differences in brain structure and function (1); Raine (2000) found people with antisocial personality disorder had an 11% reduction in grey matter in the prefrontal cortex (1); deficits in mirror neurons may reduce empathy, making offending more likely (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.3.9 · Neural explanation
Explain one limitation of the neural explanation of offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
Not all people with antisocial personality disorder offend, and not all offenders have APD (1); and the findings are correlational, so brain differences may not cause offending (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.3.9 · Eysenck's theory
Outline Eysenck's theory of the criminal personality. [4 marks]
Answer:
Personality has three dimensions: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism–stability and psychoticism (1); the criminal personality is high on all three: neurotic-extravert with high psychoticism (1); this is biologically based: extraverts have an underactive nervous system and seek excitement, and neurotics are unstable and overreact (1); they are also difficult to condition, so do not learn from punishment (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.3.9 · Eysenck's theory
Explain one strength of Eysenck's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) found prisoners scored higher on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism than a control group (1); this supports the idea of a criminal personality (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.3.9 · Eysenck's theory
Explain one limitation of Eysenck's theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
Moffitt (1993) argued there are different types of offender, e.g. adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent (1); and personality may be culture-bound, e.g. Bartol and Holanchock (1979) found Hispanic and African-American offenders were less extraverted (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive explanations
Outline Kohlberg's level of moral reasoning as an explanation of offending. [3 marks]
Answer:
Kohlberg proposed people's decisions about right and wrong develop through stages (1); offenders tend to show pre-conventional moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment and gaining rewards (1); Kohlberg (1973) found violent youths were at a lower level than non-violent youths (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive distortions
Explain what is meant by hostile attribution bias. [2 marks]
Answer:
Interpreting other people's actions as threatening or aggressive when they are not (1); e.g. seeing an innocent look as provocation, which may lead to a violent response (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive distortions
Explain what is meant by minimalisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Downplaying the seriousness of an offence (1); e.g. burglars describing their crimes as 'doing a job', which reduces guilt (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive distortions
Outline one study of cognitive distortions in offenders. [2 marks]
Answer:
Schönenberg and Justye (2014) showed 55 violent offenders images of faces with ambiguous emotions (1); they were more likely to see them as angry than a control group, supporting hostile attribution bias (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive explanations
Explain one limitation of cognitive explanations of offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
They describe offenders' thinking but do not explain why it develops (1); and moral reasoning may not predict all crimes, e.g. people may reason morally but still offend (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.3.9 · Differential association
Outline differential association theory. [3 marks]
Answer:
Sutherland (1939) proposed offending is learned through interactions with others (1); people learn attitudes towards crime, and if pro-crime attitudes outweigh anti-crime attitudes, they will offend (1); they also learn techniques for committing crime, e.g. how to break into a car (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.3.9 · Differential association
Explain one strength of differential association theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
It moved the focus away from biological explanations to social factors (1); and Farrington et al. (2006) found having a convicted parent was a strong predictor of offending (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.3.9 · Differential association
Explain one limitation of differential association theory. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is difficult to test, as it is hard to measure the number of pro-crime attitudes a person has been exposed to (1); and it cannot explain why some people exposed to pro-crime attitudes do not offend (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.3.9 · Psychodynamic explanations
Outline Blackburn's inadequate superego explanation of offending. [3 marks]
Answer:
If the superego is deficient, the id is not controlled, so offending is more likely (1); a weak superego develops if the same-sex parent is absent (1); a deviant superego if the child identifies with a criminal parent, and an over-harsh superego if parents are very strict, leading to guilt and a desire to be punished (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.3.9 · Psychodynamic explanations
Explain one limitation of psychodynamic explanations of offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
They are unfalsifiable, as the superego cannot be measured (1); and they are gender biased, as Freud suggested women have weaker superegos, but men commit far more crime (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.3.9 · Custodial sentencing
Outline the aims of custodial sentencing. [4 marks]
Answer:
Deterrence: discouraging the individual and society from crime (1); incapacitation: protecting the public by removing the offender (1); retribution: making the offender pay for their crime (1); rehabilitation: helping the offender change so they do not reoffend (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.3.9 · Custodial sentencing
Outline the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. [3 marks]
Answer:
Stress and depression: suicide and self-harm rates are higher in prison (1); institutionalisation: offenders adapt to prison routines and may struggle outside (1); prisonisation: offenders learn prison norms and may be 'trained' in crime (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.3.9 · Recidivism
What is recidivism? [2 marks]
Answer:
Reoffending after receiving a punishment (1); in the UK, a large proportion of offenders released from prison reoffend within a year, so recidivism is used to judge whether punishments work (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.3.9 · Behaviour modification
Outline behaviour modification in custody. [3 marks]
Answer:
Based on operant conditioning, it reinforces desirable behaviour (1); token economies: prisoners receive tokens for good behaviour, e.g. following rules (1); tokens can be exchanged for rewards, e.g. phone calls or time outside, while undesirable behaviour is punished by losing tokens (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.3.9 · Behaviour modification
Explain one limitation of behaviour modification in custody. [2 marks]
Answer:
Behaviour may not continue after release, when tokens are no longer available (1); and although Hobbs and Holt (1976) found improved behaviour in young offenders, it is unclear whether this reduces long-term reoffending (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.3.9 · Anger management
Outline anger management as a way of dealing with offending behaviour. [3 marks]
Answer:
Cognitive preparation: the offender identifies triggers for their anger (1); skill acquisition: they learn techniques to deal with anger, e.g. assertiveness and relaxation (1); application practice: they practise skills in role-play situations (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.3.9 · Anger management
Explain one strength and one limitation of anger management. [2 marks]
Answer:
Strength: it addresses the causes of offending, so it may have long-term benefits (1); limitation: Blackburn (1993) found short-term improvements but no reduction in reoffending (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.3.9 · Restorative justice
Outline restorative justice programmes. [3 marks]
Answer:
The offender and victim meet with a trained mediator (1); the victim can explain the effect of the crime, and the offender can apologise (1); the focus is on rehabilitation of offenders and repairing harm to victims (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.3.9 · Restorative justice
Explain one strength of restorative justice. [2 marks]
Answer:
The Restorative Justice Council (2015) found an 85% victim satisfaction rate (1); and a 14% reduction in reoffending (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.3.9 · Restorative justice
Explain one limitation of restorative justice. [2 marks]
Answer:
Offenders must be willing to admit guilt and take part, so it is not suitable for all crimes (1); and victims may feel more distressed or that offenders are 'getting off lightly' (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.3.9 · Custodial sentencing
Explain one limitation of custodial sentencing. [2 marks]
Answer:
High recidivism rates suggest it does not deter or rehabilitate (1); and it can cause psychological harm, e.g. depression and suicide (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.3.9 · Offender profiling
A series of burglaries all take place within a mile of each other. Which approach to profiling would be most useful? Explain why. [2 marks]
Answer:
Geographical profiling (1); because the locations of linked crimes can be used to infer the offender's base (circle theory) (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.3.9 · Biological explanations
Explain why an interactionist approach is needed to explain offending. [2 marks]
Answer:
Genetic and neural factors may create a vulnerability (diathesis) (1); but environmental factors, e.g. family or peers, may trigger offending (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.3.9 · Eysenck's theory
Name the personality questionnaire Eysenck used to measure personality. [1 mark]
Answer:
The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).
Question 48 · Spec 4.3.9 · Cognitive distortions
Explain how cognitive distortions could be targeted in treatment. [2 marks]
Answer:
CBT could help offenders identify and challenge hostile attributions and minimalisation (1); e.g. anger management teaches them to recognise triggers and reinterpret situations (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.3.9 · Differential association
Explain how differential association theory explains high reoffending rates. [2 marks]
Answer:
In prison, offenders learn pro-crime attitudes and techniques from other inmates (1); so they are more likely to offend after release (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.3.9 · Offender profiling
Explain how offender profiling can help police investigations. [2 marks]
Answer:
It narrows the field of suspects (1); and helps the police focus resources and plan interviews (1).

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